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ON 


Seats  and  Saddles 


BITS  AND  BITTING 


AND 


THE  PREVENTION  AND  CURE  OF 

RESTIVENESS  IN   HORSES. 


BY 

FRANCIS    DWYER 

MAJOR    OF    HUSSARS    IN    THE    IMPERIAL    AUSTRIAN    SERVICE. 


"  Vis  consili  expers  mole  ruit  sua." 

— Horace,  Carmin.,  Lib.  III.  Ode  iv. 


NEW  YORK: 

JOHN  W.   LOVELL    COMPANY, 
150  Worth  Street. 


W0^ 


TO 

HIS   SERENE  HIGHNESS 

FRANCES  PAUL  CHARLES  LOUIS  ALEXANDER. 
PRINCE   OF  TECK, 

Major  of  Hussars  in  the  Imperial  Atistrian  Service, 

THIS    BOOK 

IS    BY   PERMISSION    DEDICATED, 

IN    GRATEFUL    ACKNOWLEDGMENT 

OF    MANY   KINDNESSES 

SHOWN    TO    HIS    SERENE    HIGHNESS*S 

MOST    OBEDIENT    SERVANT, 

THE   AUTHOR. 


I 

ON 

Seats  and  Saddles 

BITS   AND    BITTING 

ETC. 


CONTENTS. 


I 


INTRODUCTORY  CHAPTER. 

PAGB 

Various  styles  of  riding  a  consequence  of  various  kinds  of  in- 
ducements to  ride — Natural  riders  and  instructive  riders — 
There  is  great  waste  of  horse-flesh  and  premature  destruction 
of  the  animal's  legs  where  bad  methods  are  followed,  or  where 
no  method  at  all  exists — English  civilian  riders  use  up  an 
enormous  quantity  of  horse-flesh — Some  foreign  cavalry  ser- 
vices do  the  same — The  causes  are  generally  false  distribu- 
tion of  the  weight  to  be  carried — The  horse's  skeleton  is  the 
framework  of  the  machine  we  employ  as  a  bearer — In  order 
to  adjust  the  burden  to  this,  some  knowledge  of  the  machine  is 
required,  as  also  of  the  saddle  by  means  of  which  that  burden 
is  placed  and  retained  on  the  horse's  back — The  seat  is  the 
way  in  which  the  rider  adjusts  his  own  weight  through  the 
intermedium  of  the  saddle  to  the  horse — Varieties  of  seats  to 
suit  various  purposes — The  bit  is  the  instrument  by  which 
the  rider's  will  is  transmitted  to  the  horse ;  it  is  a  lever  which, 
if  accurately  adapted,  will  be  of  great  assistance  and  value  to 
the  rider  ;  if  unfitted  in  shape,  size,  etc.,  it  is  not  only  useless, 
but  often  dangerous — Restiveness  in  horses  most  usually  the 
consequence  of  injudicious  treatment  of  some  kind  or  other — 
To  prevent  or  cure  restiveness  requires  a  knowledge  of  the 
methods  employed  for  breaking  in  or  handling  horses,  conse- 
quently also  of  the  method  in  which  the  weight  of  the  rider 
should  be  brought  to  bear,  and  also  how  such  horses  should 

be  bitted 15-28 

7 


Co?i  tents. 
PART    I. 

SEATS   AND    SADDLES. 


CHAPTER  I. 

the  framework  of  the  horse  considered  from  a 
mp:chanical  point  of  view. 

PAGB 

The  four  legs  are  the  supports  of  the  spinal  column  which  bears 
the  burden  directly — There  is  one  portion  of  the  spinal  col- 
umn round  which  all  the  others  move  :  this  is  the  centre  of 
motion  of  the  horse — The  head  and  neck  project  beyond  the 
basis  on  which  the  animal  stands  ;  the  position  of  the  centre 
of  gravity  modified  by  this — The  horse's  fore  legs  are,  more 
particularly,  bearers,  the  hind  ones  propellers — The  action  of 
the  horse  will  depend  on  the  relative  positions  of  these  two 
centres,  which  will  be  shown  by  the  hoof- tracks,  and  is  also 
easily  recognizable  by  the  ear — The  relative  positions  of  the 
two  centres  of  gravity  and  motion  may  be  adjusted  as  the 
nature  of  the  service  demanded  requires,  by  simply  altering 
the  position  of  the  head  and  neck ;  and  this  is  equally  true 
whether  the  horse  be  in  motion  or  at  rest 31-54 


CHAPTER  II. 

THE  SADDLE  AND  ITS  INFLUENCE  ON  THE  SEAT. 

The  saddle  should  be  adjusted  to  whatever  seat  may  be  adopted 
for  a  particular  purpose,  and  not  vice  versd  the  seat  to  the 
saddle — Its  size  should  be  proportioned  to  the  weight  it  will 
have  to  support:  its  shape  should  be  adapted,  on  the  one 
hand,  to  the  horse's  back  ;  on  the  other,  to  the  rider's  seat 
and  legs — The  weight  should  be  so  placed  as  to  press  equally 
over  the  whole  under  surface  of  the  saddle ;  there  must  be 
no  lever  action  :  all  of  which  is  best  attained  by  making  the 
seat  central,  placing  the  girths  also  in  the  centre  of  the  sad- 
dle, and,  finally,  the  stirrups  as  near  this  point  as  can  be  con- 
veniently done — For  military  purposes,  blankets  in  some 


Contents.  9 

PAGB 

respects  preferable  to  feltplates  under  the  saddle  —  The 
crupper  is  utterly  useless — The  breastplate  is  unobjection- 
able   55-71 


CHAPTER  IIL 

SEATS. 

The  seat  on  horseback  is  maintained  by  balance,  by  friction  or 
by  the  aid  of  the  stirrups — A  combination  of  all  these  means 
affords  the  greatest  security — The  more  perfect  the  balance 
the  less  will  be  the  quantity  of  muscular  action  required  to 
maintain  the  seat ;  the  closer  the  seat  to  the  saddle  and  the 
greater  the  surfaces  brought  into  contact,  the  more  easily 
will  the  balance  be  maintained ;  the  nearer  the  point  of  sus- 
pension of  the  stirrup  to  the  seat,  the  less  will  balance  and 
friction  be  disturbed,  and  the  more  will  the  stirrup  act  in 
support  of  these,  how  or  wherever  the  rider  may  otherwise 
sit — To  have  a  good  seat,  his  weight  must  be  distributed 
equally  between  the  three  bones  forming  the  triangle  of  his 
fork,  and  not  on  any  two  of  these,  or  on  the  third  alone — 
It  is  better  to  commence  riding  with  stirrups  than  without — 
The  jockey's  saddle  and  seat — The  hunting  seat — Road- 
riding — Rising  in  the  stirrups  versus  bobbing  up  and  down 
—What  is  the  object  of  both 72-93 


CHAPTER  IV. 

THE    MILITARY   SEAT. 

This  is  more  easily  reducible  to  rule  than  any  other,  the  object 
being  alike  in  all  cases,  and  the  material  selected  with  refer- 
ence to  that  special  purpose — The  cavalry  seat  must  facili- 
tate not  only  the  mere  progressive  power  of  the  horse,  but 
also  such  a  degree  of  handiness  as  will  ensure  to  its  rider  a 
perfect  command  over  his  weapons,  and,  in  addition  to  all 
this,  secure  for  the  troop-horse  the  longest  possible  period 
of  service — These  latter  objects  are  but  too  frequently  sacri- 
ficed in  favor  of  mere  vehemence  of  movement ;  they  are 
only  to  be  attained  by  very  careful  saddling,  bitting,  and  a 


lO  Contents. 

TAGS 

correct  seat  or  method  of  riding— Weight  carried  by  some 
cavalry  horses  compared  with  that  carried  by  hunters  and 
racers — Average  daily  work  of  a  man  carrying  a  burden 
compared  with  that  of  a  horse  under  various  circumstances 
and  at  various  degrees  of  speed 94-108 


PART  II. 

BITS    AND    BITTING. 


CHAPTER  I. 
GENERAL   PRINCIPLES. 

Vulgar  idea  of  hard  and  soft-mouthed  horses— The  horse's  head 
and  neck  levers,  by  means  of  which  the  animal's  body  may 
be  steered  like  a  boat  by  the  tiller — Baucher's  ideas  of  the 
position  of  the  head  and  neck — Rational  handling  contrasted 
with  ordinary  horse-breaking — Bitting  must  be  suited  to 
style  of  riding— Value  of  good  and  careful  bitting  in  the 
handhng  of  young  horses,  and  the  prevention  of  restiveness 
— Its  great  importance  for  cavalry 11 1-122 

CHAPTER  II. 

THE  NECK— THE  HEAD — THE  MOUTH — THE  TONGUE — CARRIAGE 
— FEELING. 

Varieties  of  shapes,  etc.,  of  horses'  necks — Influence  of  this  on 
direction  of  pull  of  reins — Influence  of  military  pack  on  the 
same — Ditto  of  shape  of  horse's  head  and  mode  in  which  it 
is  set  on  neck — The  head  considered  as  a  lever — Horses  that 
poke  out  their  noses  or  bend  their  necks  too  much — Width 
between  jaws  —  Glands  situated  here  —  Conformation  of 
horse's  chin,  nose,  lips,  chin-groove,  externally ;  of  mouth 
and  tongue  internally — Average  dimensions  of  some  parts 
of  horses'  mouths — The  tongue-channel — Carriage  of  horse's 
head  and  neck  must  be  suited  to  kind  of  work  demanded — 
Carriage  for  military  purposes,  for  racing,  for  hunting,  for 
road-riding 123- 145 


Contents,  X I 


CHAPTER  III. 

THE  CAVESSON — SNAFFLE — NOSEBAND — TRAINING-HALTER — 
RUNNING-REINS. 

PAGB 

The  snaffle  the  simplest  and  best  of  all  forms  of  bit — Requires 
good,  steady  seat — Various  forms  of  snaffle — Their  relative 
value — The  noseband,  its  use — Difficulties  about  it — Von 
Oeynhausen's  training-halter — Where  the  snaffle  should  be 
put  in  the  horse's  mouth — Martingals — Seeger's  running- 
reins 146-157 


CHAPTER  IV. 

THE   LEVER — THE   BIT   AND   CURB — THE   BRIDLE. 

With  a  plain  snaffle  there  is  no  lever  power — Orders  of  levers — 
Lever  of  second  order  gives  the  action  required  for  a  bit — 
The  curb  should  not  exert  the  slightest  degree  of  painful 
action — "Whatever  maybe  required  of  this  should  be  exerted 
by  mouthpiece,  the  less  the  better— Consequences  of  curb 
producing  a  greater  amount  of  painful  action  than  mouth- 
piece— Length  of  the  bars  of  bit,  whence  measured — Line  of 
bearing — Length  of  upper  bar  of  bit — A  bit  '*  falls  through" 
or  stands  stiff:  why? — Effects  of  both — Angle  at  which  reins 
should  act  on  bit — Dimensions  of  lower  bar  of  bit— Curb, 
length  of— Position  for  mouthpiece  in  horse's  mouth — Best 
form  of  curb — Curb-hooks— Mouthpiece  of  bit— Port,  use 
of— Rings  on  mouthpieces,  their  use — Jointed  mouthpieces 
— Pelham — Dumpy-bit— Method  of  adjusting  bit  and  bridle 
— The  bridoon 158-ii 


CHAPTER  V. 

TAKING   MEASURE   FOR  THE   BIT — THE   MOUTH-GAUGE — THE 
TRIAL-BIT. 

Description    of    these    instruments    and    methods    of    using 

them 190  196 


12  Co7itents* 

PART   III. 

RESTIVENESS  :    ITS    PREVENTION   AND    CURE. 


CHAPTER  I. 

HOW   TO    RENDER   HORSES    OBEDIENT. 

PACK 

Disobedience  or  restiveness  not  to  be  confounded  with  vice — 
A  horse  is  stronger  than  a  man ;  therefore  nothing  is  to  be 
done  by  mere  brute  force— Usual  cause  of  insubordination 
is  injudicious  treatment— Character  of  the  horse— English 
method  of  training  or  handling  young  horses— Continental 
or  school  methods— Advantages  or  disadvantages  of  these 
two;  their  description;  how  they  may  be  best  made  appli- 
cable to  the  prevention  and  cure  of  restiveness 199-220 


CHAPTER  II. 

GENERAL  RULES  FOR  THE  TREATMENT  OF  RESTIVENESS. 

Avoid  opportunities  of  conflict — Ascertain  how  restiveness  was 
caused,  and  when  first  shown,  the  temper  and  general  dis- 
position of  the  animal ;  also  its  condition  must  be  taken 
into  account — If  practicable,  the  handling  of  restive  horses 
should  be  undertaken  in  an  enclosed  place,  a  riding-school, 
or  the  like — What  may  be  done  when  nothing  of  this  kind 
is  available — The  first  great  object  is  to  get  a  horse  to 
go  somehow,  then  afterward  in  obedience  and  in  a  cer- 
tain form — Generally  speaking,  restive  horses  should  be 
treated  as  if  they  had  never  been  handled  at  all ;  that  is  to 
say,  they  should  be  re-trained  from  beginning  to  end — The 
position  generally  assumed  by  restive  horses — How  to  get 
them  out  of  this — "  Unfbcing"  a  horse  from  the  spot — Treat- 
ment of  a  horse  that  backs — How  to  use  the  spurs  and  the 
whip 221-234 


Contents.  13 


CHAPTER  III. 

SPECIAL    FORMS    OF   RESTIVENESS. 

PAGB 

Solting. — Why  do  horses  bolt  ?— How  to  manage  bolters  where 
there  is  room,  and  when  one  is  confined  to  the  road — Bolters 
that  carry  their  heads  up  and  those  that  carry  them  down — 
Bucking  and  plunging— How  to  manage  these — The  dumb- 
jockey  235-242 

Rearing.— Ylow  a  horse  prepares  itself  to  rear — How  the  rear- 
ing may  be  prevented  at  this  stage — How  the  horse  does 
rear — Method  of  treatment  with  the  lounge;  or  under  the 
rider 242-250 

fCicking.—Th.Q.  cause  of  kicking — The  method  of  treatment. .  .250-252 
2 


INTRODUCTORY  CHAPTER. 


IT  may  be  well,  at  starting,  to  state  the  objects  with 
which  this  little  book  has  been  brought  before  the 
public  interested  in  horses,  and  at  the  same  time,  in 
order  to  prevent  misapprehension,  to  say  that  the  author 
has  not  the  slightest  intention  of  setting  up  any  one 
kind  of  seat  or  style  of  riding  as  a  model  for  all  riders. 
On  the  contrary,  he  is  fully  persuaded  that  each  of 
these  has  its  own  merits,  and,  as  our  French  neighbors 
would  say,  its  own  raison  d'etre — that  is  to  say,  has 
been  adopted  for  good  and  sufficient  reasons,  so  far  as 
each  individual  rider  possessed  an  insight  into  the  true 
essentials  of  the  case,  and  has  been  able  to  distinguish 
these  from  what  is  merely  matter  of  fashion  or  supposed 
convenience. 

Some  men,  and  these  are  the  naturally  good  or  born 
riders,  possess  the  sort  of  knowledge  in  question  in- 
stinctively, and  frequently  without  being  able  to  account 
either  to  themselves  or  others  for  the  way  in  which 
they  have  acquired  it,  or  give  satisfactory  reasons  for 
the  adoption  of  their  methods.  Such  men  are  most 
usually,  although  not  invariably,  of  the  peculiar  build, 
unnecessar}'  to  describe,  which  combines  strength  and 
vigor  with  lightness  and  dexterity  ;  and  must  possess 
in  all  cases  that  happy  admixture  of  courage,  prompt 
decision,    patience    and    perseverance    that    constitute 

15 


l6  Introductory  Chapter. 

the  rider's  temperament,  and  which  arrive  at  their 
greatest  perfection  when  coupled  with  an  unselfish  love 
of  that  noblest  and  most  beautiful  animal,  the  horse.  It 
is  only  necessary  to  put  a  man  of  this  sort  into  the 
saddle  and  he  becomes  at  once  a  rider ;  just  as  another 
becomes  a  good  shot,  and  a  third  an  expert  angler, 
almost  from  the  moment  a  gun  or  a  rod  is  placed  in 
their  hands. 

But  all  men  are  not  so  gifted  ;  whole  nations,  indeed, 
have  been  at  various  periods  of  the  world's  history 
characterized  as  born  riders ;  but  it  will  be  found,  on 
examination,  that  in  these  instances  unmixed  race,  re- 
sulting in  great  uniformity  of  stature,  build  and  tem- 
perament, combined  with  what  we  are  pleased  to  term 
a  low  degree  of  civilization,  prevailed  to  a  much  greater 
extent  than  amongst  ourselves.  It  would  be  invidious, 
and  moreover  unnecessary,  for  the  object  we  have  in 
view,  to  enter  into  a  more  minute  comparison  in  this 
respect  of  our  own  population  with  others  of  ancient  or 
modern  times.  As  regards  most  if  not  all  of  those 
moral  qualities  which  we  have  stated  to  be  typical  of 
the  rider  temperament,  we  stand  confessedly  very  high 
in  the  scale,  leaving  altogether  aside  all  that  England 
has  done  for  the  breeding  of  horses  ;  moreover,  we  have 
amongst  us  a  much  greater  proportion  of  men  who  can 
ride  tant  bien  que  7nal  than  any  other  civilized  nation  ; 
in  fact,  the  class  of  men  that  ride  for  pleasure  or  conve- 
nience is  with  us  very  large,  whereas  everywhere  else 
it  is  very  small,  almost  minute  ;  for  the  equestrian  na- 
tions that  still  exist  in  different  parts  of  the  world  mount 
their  horses  as  a  means  of  gaining  and  maintaining  their 
existence  much  more  frequently  than  for  mere  pleasure. 

This  is,  however,  precisely  what  brings  into  the  sad- 
dle a  great  number  of  people  who  do  not  belong  to  the 
class  of  born  riders,  or  have  perhaps  neither  the  time, 
opportunity  nor  desire  to  do  more  than  enjoy  a  pleas 


Introductory  Chapter,  l*f 

ant  ride  when  they  can,  and  who  are  therefore  content 
to  depend  on  others,  who  are  paid  for  doing  it,  to  put 
this  within  their  reach.  That  this  luxury  is,  however, 
not  always  attainable  even  to  a  long  purse,  many  a  man 
can  testify ;  and  the  causes  of  failures  are  frequently 
sufficiently  obvious  to  professional  riders,  although  sel- 
dom pointed  out  by  them,  for  very  cogent  reasons.  It 
must  be  confessed,  indeed,  that  it  is  most  usually  a 
very  thankless  office  to  offer  any  man  that  rides  any- 
thing like  advice,  however  well  meant  and  sound,  on 
anything  concerning  his  horse,  bridle,  saddle  or  seat. 
The  great  majority  would  much  more  patiently  tole- 
rate very  decided  expressions  of  doubt  as  to  their 
mental  or  moral  qualifications,  if  only  conveyed  with  a 
certain  amount  of  tact,  than  the  slightest  imputation  of 
want  of  knowledge  or  skill  in  things  pertaining  to 
horsemanship. 

And  yet  there  exist  very  incontestable  evidences 
that  a  great  amount  of  unskillfulness,  to  use  a  mild 
term,  in  the  matter  of  riding  does  really  exist  amongst 
us.  We  have  the  best  horses  in  the  world,  and  those 
whose  build  and  temper  are  most  peculiarly  adapted  for 
riding  purposes ;  notwithstanding  which,  the  propor- 
tion of  animals  with  broken  knees  and  other  injuries  to 
their  limbs  is  infinitely  greater  than  anywhere  else  that 
we  know  of.  No  doubt  we  demand  a  greater  amount 
of  hard  work  from  our  horses  than  other  people  ;  still, 
broken  knees  are  the  opprobrium  of  the  rider,  and 
point  very  evidently  to  great  ignorance  or  total  disre- 
gard of  the  very  simple  mechanical  principles  that 
govern  the  motion  of  a  quadruped  with  or  without  a 
burden  on  its  back.  Every  one  knows  that  the  best- 
constructed  form  or  chair  may  be  upset  by  sitting  awk- 
wardly on  it  and  setting  the  laws  of  gravitation  at  defi- 
ance ;  while  few  people  who  have  knocked  down  their 
valuable  horses  by  precisely  the  same  process  seem  to 
2^  B 


1 8  Introdticto7'y  Chapter. 

be  in  the  least  aware  of  what  they  have  really  done : 
"  the  brute  stumbled  and  broke  both  his  knees,"  is  the 
only  explanation  they  are  capable  of  aflbrding  ;  of  course 
it  is  never  their  own  fault. 

Again,  how  many  horses,  especially  young  ones,  are 
made  restive,  and  become  plungers,  bolters  or  rearers 
through  the  intolerable  pain  occasioned  by  bits  that  are 
wholly  unsuited  to  their  mouths,  and  sometimes  fitter 
for  a  rhinoceros  than  so  sensitive  and  delicate  an  animal 
as  the  horse.  Many  a  curb,  stringhalt  and  spavin  are 
originated  by  the  use,  or  rather  abuse,  of  bits  whose 
lever  power  is  so  excessive  that  it  is  impossible  to  regu- 
late their  action,  not  to  mention  the  very  numerous 
instances  in  which  bits  are  placed  in  such  a  position  in 
the  horse's  mouth  as  to  act  on  the  animal's  head  in  ex- 
actly the  opposite  direction  to  that  intended  by  the 
rider,  as  shall  be  hereafter  explained,  and  thus,  in  con- 
junction with  the  misplaced  burden  of  the  rider,  assist 
in  throwing  down  the  bearer. 

It  is  well  known  that  a  very  great  and  constantly- 
increasing  number  of  English  saddle-horses  are  an- 
nually exported  to  Berlin,  Vienna,  Paris  and  other 
great  Continental  cities,  and  many  of  these  are  there 
sold  at  prices  perfectly  remunerative  to  the  dealers,  but 
which  are  much  lower  than  animals  of  equally  good 
figure  and  proportions  command  with  ease  in  the  Eng- 
lish market.  This  was  for  a  time  a  puzzle  to  the  Con- 
tinentals, and  even  to  some  amateur  dealers,  who  made 
bad  speculations  in  consequence.  By  and  by  it  was 
discovered  that  a  great  majority  of  these  splendid 
animals  were  either  more  or  less  restive,  or  at  least 
"  difiicult,"  as  the  phi'ase  goes.  Being  frequently  pur- 
chased by  military  officers  of  superior  rank,  they  were 
naturally  put  into  the  riding-schools,  where  they  gave 
so  much  trouble  that  many  professionals  were  led  to 
believe  that  English  horses  were  incaj)able  of  any  high 


Inti'oductojy  Chapter.  19 

degree  of  school-training.  Others  who  were  more  judi- 
cious found  it  impossible  to  reconcile  the  well-known 
docility  of  the  English  breed  with  the  fractiousness 
and  intractability  of  these  exported  specimens,  and 
came  to  the  very  sound  conclusion  that  the  fault  lay, 
not  in  the  breed,  but  in  the  previous  injudicious  hand- 
ling of  these  individuals.  Baucher,  the  French  riding- 
master,  founded  his  great  reputation — which,  by  the 
way,  has  been  much  exaggerated — on  his  successful 
conversion  of  the  celebrated  Partisan — an  English  horse 
that  was  sold  for  a  song,  because  nobody  could  manage 
him — into  a  first-rate  and  most  docile  school-horse. 
Some  of  the  Germans,  however,  decided  the  question 
in  a  still  more  positive  manner  by  buying  young  high- 
bred horses  in  England  that  had  never  been  backed  ; 
and  Seeger,  Von  Oeynhausen  and  other  first-rate 
authorities  now  all  state  that  English  horses  are  just 
as  capable  of  high  training  as  all  others,  and  more  so 
than  the  Arabians,  who  have  a  very  peculiar  trot. 

It  is  incontestable  that  the  English,  as  a  nation,  pos- 
sess in  a  high  degree  the  physical  and  moral  qualifica- 
tions that  go  to  make  good  riders.  Where,  then,  can 
the  fault  lie?  Evidently  in  something  connected  with 
the  mechanism  employed  in  enabling  the  horse  to  carry 
its  rider,  and  the  rider  to  maintain  his  seat  and  preserve 
the  mastery  over  his  bearer  ;  in  other  words,  something 
-peculiar  in  saddles  and  seats^  bits  and  bitting. 

It  will  perhaps  seem  to  many  persons  impossible,  or 
at  least  improbable,  that  mere  saddles  and  bridles,  or 
the  manner  in  which  they  are  adjusted  to  the  horse's 
body,  can  produce  such  very  material  results  as  those 
suggested  here.  Well,  it  does  seem  strange  ;  but  let 
us  listen,  before  passing  judgment  on  the  case,  to  some 
documentary  evidence  bearing  upon  it.  On  the  20th 
May,  1859,  the  French  cavalry  had  in  Piedmont  900S 
effective   horses,  increased  subsequently  by  the  arrival 


20  Introductory  Chapter, 

of  a  whole  brigade  (Perouse),  so  that  on  the  24th  June 
(Solferino),  the  total  number  borne  on  the  lists  was 
10,206.*  But  it  subsequently  tra^5pired,  from  the 
report  of  the  Cavalry  Commission  ordered  by  Marshal 
Randon  to  inquire  into  the  causes  of  the  tear  and  weai 
of  horses  during  the  campaign,  that,  on  the  day  of  that 
decisive  battle,  not  more  than  about  3500  horses  were 
really  fit  for  sen-ice,  the  remainder  having  been  dis- 
abled by  less  than  one  month's  marching ;  for,  with  the 
exception  of  one  or  two  squadrons  that  fought  at  Ma- 
genta, the  French  cavalry  was  never  under  fire  up  to 
the  24th  June,  and  an  immense  proportion  of  these  had 
been  rendered  unserviceable  by  the  saddle  and  other 
portions  of  the  equipment. 

Most  of  us,  too,  have  heard  of  what  happened  to  that 
portion  of  our  own  cavalry  that  was  employed  in  the 
reconnoitring  expedition  into  the  Dobrudscha.  A 
proverb  current  amongst  the  Continental  military  men 
says  that  more  men  are  put  hors  de  combat  by  the 
calfskin  (the  knapsack)  than  by  either  bullet  or  bay- 
onet ;  and  there  seems  good  reason  to  believe  that  the 
oigskin  stands  in  the  same  fatal  relation  to  horses. 

There  is  no  lack  of  books  in  which  very  full  and 
particular  descriptions  of  model  seats  on  horseback  may 
be  found,  nor  of  riding-masters  who  both  know  how 
to  sit  a  horse  themselves  and  impart  to  their  pupils 
their  own  particular  method.  But  this  will  not  answer 
the  purpose  ;  for  there  exists  not  only  a  certain  number 
of  typical  seats,  more  or  less  suited  to  various  ends — as 
racing,  hunting,  the  cavalry  service,  etc.,  all  of  which, 
as  has  been  said,  have  their  peculiar  justification — but 
there  is  also  a  great  variety  in  the  build  of  horses,  and 
especially  in  the  relative  power  of  their  fore  and  hind 
quarters,  which   demands  consideration,  if  we  would 

*  "  Campagne  de  I'Empereur  Napoleon  III.  en  Italic  en  1859" 
(official). 


Introductory  Chapter,  21 

avoid  the  serious  and  but  too  common  error  of  using 
up  one  set  of  members  prematurely  whilst  leaving  the 
others  intact.  For  instance,  nothing  is  more  frequent 
amongst  ourselves  than  to  see  horses  otherwise  perfectly 
sound  irreparably  ruined  in  the  fore  legs. 

Moreover,  there  exists  an  equal  variety  in  the  build 
of  the  riders,  which  also  requires  consideration.  Dr. 
Heavysterne  cannot  be  expected  to  sit  his  horse  as  Mr. 
Threadpaper  can  do,  nor  a  well  "  split-up"  man  like 
one  that  is  built  on  the  lines  of  an  otter ;  nevertheless, 
there  is  no  reason  why  each  and  all  of  them  should  not 
sit  well  and  judiciously,  though  their  seats  must  be  ne- 
cessarily different.  There  is  only  one  class  of  riders 
from  which  one  must  and  can  demand  a  great  degree  of 
uniformity — namely,  cavalry.  The  necessity  arises  from 
the  existence  of  a  special  and  narrowly-defined  object 
being  to  be  attained — the  possibility,  from  the  fact  of 
both  men  and  horses  being  selected  with  reference  to 
this  very  object.  But  even  here  a  certain  margin  is 
inevitable.  It  is  not  possible  to  make  the  Indo-Ger- 
manic  Prussians,  Bavarians,  French,  English  or  Irish 
sit  on  horseback  exactly  like  the  Mongolian,  Magyars 
and  Turks,  or  the  Semitic  Arabs.  Professor  Max  Miil- 
ler  and  the  author  of  the  Adamites  seem  to  have  over- 
looked this  interesting  fact.  Still,  the  mutual  relations 
of  the  frameworks  of  the  man  and  of  the  horse  are 
such  as  to  admit  of  one  general  principle  being  set  up, 
and  this  fjtust  be  adhered  to  as  closely  as  possible  if  the 
real  end  and  object  are  not  to  be  sacrificed  to  fashion  or 
prejudice. 

It  is  more  difficult  to  lay  down  anything  like  a  prin- 
ciple for  the  guidance  of  that  large  class  of  men  who 
ride  simply  for  pleasure,  convenience  or  health.  To 
one  considerable  section  of  them  the  notion  of  sitting 
their  horses  as  a  riding-master  is  supposed  to  do  would 
be  simply  disgusting ;  it  would  look  like  an  affectation, 


22  Introductory  Chapter. 

a  sort  of  thing  to  which  well-bred  gentlemen  have  a 
great  objection.  They  can  afford  to  ride  tolerably  safe 
horses,  and  depend  on  their  saddles  and  groom  to  a 
great  extent  for  the  convenience  and  comfort  of  their 
seat.  These  important  functionaries  must  be  often 
sadly  puzzled  how  to  ensure  this,  and  would  be  prob- 
ably often  delighted  to  find  their  employer  capable  of 
giving  them  some  intelligible  hint  on  which  they 'might 
exercise  their  ingenuity  and  s avoir  fair e  with  a  decent 
chance  of  success. 

The  next  section  comprises  those  who  are  indifferent 
to  appearances,  and  merely  desire  to  ride  safely  and 
comfortably.  As  regards  the  latter  point,  we  may  refer 
them  to  what  has  been  just  said  ;  and  as  to  the  matter 
of  safety,  this  will  be  perhaps  better  attained  by  some 
knowledge  of  where  the  danger  lies  and  how  it  may 
be  avoided  than  by  a  practical  experience  of  it  in  the 
shape  of  a  fall. 

Others  again,  although  they  never  followed  a  hound, 
nor  are  likely  to  do  so,  adopt  what  they  believe  to  be 
"  a  hunting  seat,"  merely  because  it  is  a  prominent  type, 
and  therefore  caught  their  eye  more  readily  than  the 
chaos  that  presented  itself  in  all  other  directions.  Many 
of  them  would  doubtless  adopt  with  equal  readiness 
some  other  form  that  promised  equal  or  greater  security 
and  convenience,  especially  if  they  should  happen  to 
discover,  by  the  aid  of  a  looking-glass,  that  their  copy 
is  somewhat  too  much  of  a  caricature. 

The  aim  of  this  little  treatise  is,  therefore,  by  appeal- 
ing to  the  intelligence,  common  sense  and  good  feeling 
of  all  riding  men,  to  enable  each  to  discover  for  him- 
self what  best  suits  his  own  peculiar  case,  and  will  put 
him  in  a  position  to  make  the  best  and  the  most  of 
every  horse  he  may  have  to  ride,  in  the  safest  manner, 
so  far,  at  least,  as  the  matters  herein  treated  are  con- 
cerned.    The  intention  is  to  refrain  from  all  dogrmatism 


Introductory  Chapter.  23 

and  authoritative  assertions,  and  merely  present  general 
principles  derived  from  mechanical  law^s  that  admit  of 
no  controversy,  showing  their  inevitable  bearing  on  the 
most  important  points,  and  leaving  the  reader  as  much 
as  possible  to  form  his  own  judgment  independently  and 
arrive  at  a  practical  application  for  himself.  The  work 
is  therefore  not  intended  to  represent  a  treatise  on  equita- 
tion or  the  art  of  riding,  but  merely  to  be  a  plain  and 
easily  intelligible  exposition  of  the  mechanical  problems 
connected  with  the  case  of  a  quadruped  serving  as  a 
bearer  to  a  biped — in  other  words,  of  a  horse  under  its 
rider. 

The  plan  to  be  adopted  will  be,  first,  as  regards 
"  Seats  and  Saddles,"  as  follows  :  The  horse's  skeleton 
is  a  framework  forming  the  basis  of  the  living  machine 
we  employ  as  a  bearer ;  it  is  therefore  necessary  to 
know  something  of  its  construction,  less  from  an  ana- 
tomical than  a  mechanical  point  of  view.  The  princi- 
ples involved  are  very  simple  and  familiar  to  most 
people  in  one  way  or  the  other,  regarding  chiefly  equi- 
librium— that  is  to  say,  such  a  distribution  of  a  weight 
with  reference  to  its  supports  as  ensures  stability,  or,  in 
other  w^ords,  prevents  its  upsetting  or  falling ;  also 
something  about  levers. 

The  chief  weight  to  be  carried  by  the  machine  is,  of 
course,  the  rider,  whose  seat  should  therefore  be  so  ad- 
justed as  not  to  interfere  with  the  free  action  of  the 
bearer  and  the  presei-vation  of  its  stability  and  equilib- 
rium. But  as  the  seat  depends  to  a  great  extent  on 
the  saddle,  it  becomes  necessary  to  examine,  in  the 
first  place,  the  general  principles  of  construction  of 
this  mechanical  contrivance,  by  means  of  which  the 
twofold  object  of  securing  the  free  action  of  the  horse 
and  the  safety  of  the  rider  may  be  best  attained.  This 
will  be  found  to  depend  partly  on  the  absolute  amount 
of  surface  coming  in  contact  on  the  one  hand  with  the 


24  Introductory  Chapter. 

horse's  back,  on  the  other  with  the  rider's  seat ;  partly 
on  the  way  in  which  the  weight  of  the  latter  is  ad- 
justed on  the  saddle — that  is  to  say,  whether  it  presses 
more  on  one  part  than  another,  and  consequently  chiefly 
on  one  or  two  points  of  the  horse's  back,  or  whether  it 
be  distributed  equably  over  the  whole  surface  in  contact 
with  the  latter — in  other  words,  what  part  of  the  saddle 
the  rider  should  occupy  in  order  to  secure  the  objects 
he  has  in  view,  as  stated  above.  It  will  further  depend 
on  the  general  shape  of  those  parts  of  its  under  and 
upper  surfaces  that  come  in  contact  with  the  horse's 
back  and  rider's  seat  respectively,  which,  of  course,  in- 
cludes the  question  of  its  proper  place,  its  mode  of  at- 
tachment— that  is  to  say,  where  and  how  the  girths 
should  be  fixed — and  the  causes  of  its  displacement, 
which  depend  partly  on  its  own  shape  favoring,  partly 
on  the  rider's  seat  producing,  lever  action,  which  again 
depends  to  a  great  extent  on  the  exact  point  from  which 
the  stirrups  are  suspended. 

This  will  furnish  data  fo  an  estimate,  not  so  much 
of  the  relative  value  of  different  kinds  of  seats — which 
would  only  divert  attention  from  the  real  object  and 
provoke  controversy — as  of  their  absolute  fitness  for  the 
particular  purpose  they  are  intended  to  fulfill ;  and  will 
also  afford  an  opportunity  of  pointing  out  the  danger 
of  exaggerations  and  the  gross  absurdity  of  applying  a 
style  of  riding  more  or  less  specially  adapted  to  one 
purpose  to  others  that  have  no  analogy  with  it ;  in  fact, 
it  will  be  shown  that  diflerent  styles  of  riding  are  not 
only  inevitable  but  legitimate,  because  the  ends  to  be 
attained  vary  considerably.  But  at  the  same  time, 
although  the  general  principles  may  be  adapted  to  cir- 
cumstances, they  can  never  be  absolutely  violated  with 
impunity.  Let  each  particular  style  of  riding  be  as 
perfect  in  itself  as  possible,  without  being  made  antago- 
nistic to  others  or  losing  sight  of  the  general  conditions 


hiti'oductory  Chapter.  25 

that  apply  to  all  without  exception.  There  is  a  great 
value  in  schools ;  tor,  making  due  allowance  for  indi- 
viduality, they  enable  us  to  form  a  correct  estimate  of 
what  the  scholars  can  do.  For  instance,  in  "welters'* 
we  impose  penalties  on  professional  jocks  because  we 
know  that  they  have  been  trained  in  a  certain  school, 
whereas  we  have  no  standard  of  comparison  for  gentle- 
men-riders. 

It  is  proposed  to  illustrate  this  portion  of  the  book 
with  drawings  of  horsemen,  representing  various  styles 
of  European  and  Asiatic  riding,  taken  from  portraits, 
photographs  and  pictures  executed  by  artists  who  had 
no  preconceived  theories  to  bolster  up,  and  picked 
nearly  at  random  from  such  materials  as  were  available. 
They  will  be  found  to  confirm,  in  a  remarkable  man- 
ner, the  truth  of  the  general  principles  laid  down,  as 
well  by  their  discrepancies  as  their  points  of  resem- 
blance, and  will  no  doubt  prove  interesting  to  many 
readers  in  other  respects. 

The  European  cavalry  soldier  is  compelled  to  put  on 
his  horse's  back,  in  addition  to  his  own  weight  and 
that  of  the  saddle,  the  extra  burden  of  a  huge  pack  of 
things  forming  his  kit.  It  is  obvious  that  the  most 
careful  adjustment  of  the  rider  and  saddle  to  the  gene- 
ral equilibrium  of  himself  and  horse  will  avail  little  if 
the  balance  be  destroyed  from  the  moment  the  pack  is 
put  on  ;  nor  will  it  do  to  make  this  merely  a  counter- 
poise to  the  rider,  because  he  is  frequently  required  to 
ride  either  in  an  empty  saddle  or  with  various  amounts 
of  pack,  therefore  the  equilibrium  must  be  at  all  times 
maintainable,  whatever  the  absolute  weight  may  be. 
The  neglect  of  this  is  one  of  the  main  causes  of  the 
sore-back  disasters  that  usually  occur  at  the  commence- 
ment of  a  campaign,  and,  to  the  great  astonishment  of 
the  uninitiated,  frequently  nearly  disappear  in  the  fur. 
ther  course  of  it. 
3 


26  Introductory  Chapter. 

There  is  another  great  difference  between  the  condi- 
tions under  which  the  soldier  and  the  civilian  mount 
their  horses,  the  former  being  compelled  to  ride  with 
one  hand,  and  have  the  other  free  to  use  his  weapons  ; 
besides,  his  life  frequently  depends  on  a  rapid  change  of 
direction  at  various  degrees  of  speed,  and  which  he 
must  be  able  to  effect  without  great  effort.  The  way  in 
which  the  pack  is  j^laced  on  the  saddle  has  much  to  do 
with  this,  as  will  appear  when  we  come  to  the  subject 
of  "  Bits  and  Bitting."  All  these  matters  shall  be 
treated  in  a  separate  chapter,  and  illustrated  by  figin-es. 

The  second  part  of  the  work  is  devoted  to  "  Bits  and 
Bitting."  There  is  much  more  in  this  than  most  people 
may  be  willing  to  believe.  A  ship  with  a  damaged  or 
badly-constructed  and  ill-fitting  rudder  is  not  more 
awkward  and  difficult  to  manage  than  a  horse  with  a 
bit  that  is  not  perfectly  adapted  to  his  mouth  and  his 
whole  frame,  or  which  ha€  been  ill  placed.  It  will  be 
necessar}'-  here  to  refer  again  to  the  horse's  skeleton, 
and  point  out  the  beautiful  series  of  levers,  and  the 
wonderful  lever  action,  by  means  of  which,  in  conjunc- 
tion with  the  seat  and  legs  of  the  rider,  his  will  may 
be  conveyed  from  his  little  finger  through  the  reins,  bit, 
head  and  neck  of  the  horse,  down  to  the  very  last  joint 
of  its  hind  legs,  in  the,  to  the  animal,  most  unmistak- 
able and  peremptory  manner. 

Although  bitting  finds  its  place  here  after  saddling, 
this  is  not  because  of  its  being  a  secondary  considera- 
tion, but  rather  because  no  man  can  have  a  light  hand, 
or,  in  fact,  use  any  bit  properly,  unless  he  have  so 
steady  and  close  a  seat  as  to  put  all  suspicion  of  what 
is  technically  termed  "  rein-riding"  out  of  the  question. 
This  self-same  rein-riding — that  is,  the  depending  to 
any  extent  on  the  reins  for  maintaining  the  seat — is  but 
too  common,  and  a  frequent  cause  of  restiveness  in 
horses,  and  no  end  of  disasters  to  riders.     It  must  be 


Int7'odiictory  Chapter,  2*J 

admitted  that  a  certain  exaggerated  method  of  rising 
in  the  stirrups  and  totally  abandoning  all  contact  with 
the  saddle,  in  which  Sunday  and  holiday  riders  so  much 
delight,  conduces  very  directly  to  this.  Of  course  no 
good  rider  cares  to  perform  this  description  of  eques- 
trian antic  ;  still  it  is  sufficiently  common,  even  amongst 
men  who  should  know  better,  to  demand  attention,  and 
is  noted  here  for  the  sake  of  illustrating  the  close  con- 
nection that  exists  between  bittinsr  and  saddling-. 

The  mechanical  principles  on  which  the  action  of 
the  bit  depends  form  the  first  subject  of  inquir}'.  Then 
we  shall  have  to  examine  into  the  internal  and  external 
conformation  of  the  horse's  mouth  to  which  this  instru- 
ment is  applied  ;  we  shall  thence  be  enabled  to  deduce 
the  dimensions  of  the  several  parts  of  the  bit,  and  also 
ascertain  its  proper  place.  Some  few  of  these  dimen- 
sions are  nearly  constant — others,  again,  are  variable — 
and  the  proper  means  for  ascertaining  them  shall  be 
pointed  out.  The  use  of  the  snaffle,  the  running-reins, 
the  nose-band,  and  other  contrivances,  demands  some 
attention,  as  also  the  real  and  supposed  advantages  of 
various  kinds  of  bits. 

The  third  and  last  part  of  the  book  is  devoted  to  the 
"  Prevention  and  Cure  of  Restiveness."  Violent  mea- 
sures are  seldom  successful  for  the  latter  purpose,  and 
more  likely  to  produce  than  to  prevent  insubordination. 
In  fact,  what  Is  generally  required  is  a  complete  course 
of  re-training,  under  circumstances  different  from  those 
under  which  the  restiveness  is  usually  exhibited.  The 
question  then  arises.  On  what  system  this  re-training 
should  be  undertaken — the  usual  English  one,  or  some 
modification  of  the  school  method?  The  first  named, 
taken  alone,  is  inadequate  to  the  purpose  .*  if  for  no 
other  reason,  from  being  generally  carried  out  on  the 
roads,  fields,  etc. — that  is  to  say,  just  where  provocation 
and  opportunity  for  conflicts  present  themselves  at  every 


28  Introductory  Chapter. 

corner.  Nevertheless,  it  has  its  own  peculiar  advan- 
tages, which  should  be  utilized.  The  school  method  is 
much  better  adapted  for  the  correction  of  restiveness, 
because  it  affords  more  direct  and  efficient  means  foi 
acquiring  perfect  control  over  the  horse's  movements. 
It  is,  however,  from  a  judicious  combination  of  the  two 
systems  that  the  best  results  may  be  hoped  for.  We 
shall,  therefore,  give  first  a  general  sketch  of  the  prin- 
ciples of  both,  pointing  out  as  we  proceed  how  each 
may  be  best  applied  for  the  object  in  view,  as  also  for 
that  of  getting  over  difficulties  with  horses  that  are  not 
restive.  We  shall  next  lay  down  the  outlines  of  a 
method  applicable  in  nearly  all  cases  of  insubordina- 
tion ;  and,  finally,  specify  for  some  particular  forms  of 
restiveness  the  treatment  that  promises  the  best  results ; 
as  also  what  should  be  avoided — for  very  much  depends 
on  this.  In  a  word,  we  propose  showing  that  a  rational, 
methodical  treatment  of  what  is  called  vice  offers  much 
better  chance  of  success  than  violent  measures ;  and 
with  this  general  statement  of  the  aim  and  object  of 
this  treatise  we  now  conclude  our  introductory  chapter. 


PART    I 


SEATS    AND    SADDLES, 


CHAPTER   I. 

THE    FRAMEWORK  OF    THE    HORSE  CONSIDERED  FROM 
A    MECHANICAL    POINT    OF    VIEW. 

THE  skeleton  of  the  horse  is  a  very  wonderful  and 
beautiful  piece  of  mechanism,  which  no  one  who 
takes  an  interest  in  such  matters  can  contemplate  with- 
out experiencing  the  pleasurable  feeling  that  perfect 
harinony  of  proportion  always  inspires.  We  were 
about  to  add,  fitness  and  adaptability  to  our  purposes, 
but  remembered,  just  in  proper  time,  that  this  would 
be,  after  all,  a  very  incorrect  mode  of  expression  ;  for, 
in  truth,  what  is  highly  desirable  is,  that  we  should 
limit  and  adapt  our  requirements  to  the  capabilities  of 
this  mechanism,  and  not  simply  to  our  own  conve- 
nience, which  but  too  frequently  leads  to  abuse,  as  we 
shall  now  proceed  to  show. 

The  horse  depicted  in  Plate  L*  is  of  an  average 
description,  and  stands  in  a  natural  position,  its  head 
and  neck  stretched  forward,  and  the  hind  legs,  instead 
of  being  perfectly  perpendicular  from  the  hocks  down- 
ward, slightly  brought  forward  to  assist  in  maintaining 
the  equilibrium.  The  animal  is  at  rest;  there  is  no- 
thing constrained  in  its  attitude  ;  but  the  eye  tells  us 
at  once  that  a  somewhat  greater  proportion  of  its  weight 
rests  on  the  fore  legs  than  on  the  hind  ones,  owing,  as 
one  sees,  to  the  projecting  position  of  the  head  and 
*  Taken  from  Seeger's  "  System  der  Reitkunst." 

31 


32  Seats  and  Saddles, 

neck,  which  are  much  heavier  than  the  tail  at  the  other 
extremity. 

Looking  now  at  the  spinal  column,  the  framework  of 
the  back,  on  which  the  rider's  weight  is  to  be  placed, 
we  perceive  that,  whilst  the  under  line  of  the  vertebraB 
is  nearly  straight,  although  not  quite  horizontal,  inclin- 
ing somewhat  downward  toward  the  forehand,  the 
spinal  processes  of  the  first  thirteen  vertebras  of  the 
back  (dorsal  vertebrae),  reckoning  from  the  point  where 
the  neck  is  attached,  incline  backward,  whereas  those 
of  the  fifteenth,  sixteenth,  seventeenth  and  eighteenth 
dorsal,  and  the  six  lumbar  vertebrae,  incline  forward  ; 
the  fourteenth  dorsal  vertebrae,  with  its  process,  stand- 
ing perfectly  upright,  and  forming,  as  it  were,  the  key- 
stone of  the  arch  thus  presented.  It  is  very  obvious 
that  this  inclination  of  the  processes  toward  a  central 
point  is  intended  to  and  does  limit  the  motion  of  the 
back  downward  and  upward  (/'.  ^.,  vertically),  so  that, 
in  fact,  this  fourteenth  dorsal  vertebra  becomes  the 
ce7ttre  of  motion  of  the  horse's  body — the  point  about 
which  the  several  movements  of  the  fore  and  hind  legs 
are  performed  with  various  degrees  of  rapidity,  either 
simultaneously  or  successively,  and  which  constitute 
the  paces  of  the  horse  ;  and  this  is  further  shown  by 
the  distribution  and  points  of  attachment  of  the  muscles 
of  the  back  and  adjacent  parts  of  the  fore  and  hind 
quarters.  Putting,  therefore,  the  progressive  movement 
of  the  animal  out  of  the  question  as  being  equally  ap- 
plicable to  all  its  parts,  the  internal  motion  of  the  seve- 
ral parts  of  the  body  increases  in  proportion  to  their 
distance  from  the  fourteenth  vertebra  ;  a7id  the  same  is 
applicable  to  burdens  placed  on  the  horse's  back^  espe- 
cially a  rider ^  ^vhose  frame  is  szibject  to  its  own  pecu- 
liar motio7is^  some  of  which  are  caused  by  the  progress- 
ive 7noveme7it  of  the  bearer. 

It  has  been  already  pointed  out,  that  in  consequence 


Scais  and  Saddles.  33 

of  the  projecting  position  of  the  head  and  neck,  espe- 
cially when  the  horse  stands  at  ease,  a  somewhat  greater 
proportion  of  its  total  weight  falls  on  the  fore  legs  than 
on  the  hinder  ones  ;  and  when  it  depresses  its  head  still 
more  than  is  represented  in  Plate  I. — for  instance,  for 
the  purpose  of  grazing — the  animal  puts  forward  one 
fore  leg,  and  usually  at  the  same  time  the  hind  leg  of 
the  opposite  side,  for  the  purpose  of  securing  its  equi- 
librium ;  and  even  horses  standing  still,  especially  un- 
der a  load,  do  the  same,  in  order  to  rest  each  pair  of 
legs  alternately. 

We  learn  two  facts  from  this  :  first,  that  the  fore  legs 
are  essentially  bearers,  and  that  the  hinder  ones,  although 
chiefly  propellers,  are  also  to  a  certain  extent  bearers; 
and  secondly,  that  a  perpendicular  line  falling  through 
the  centre  of  gravity  of  a  horse,  as  here  represented, 
would  lie  nearer  to  the  shoulder  than  the  perpendicular 
E  F,  which  falls  through  the  centre  of  motion — that  is, 
the  fourteenth  dorsal  vertebra — and  would  probably  cut 
the  twelfth,  or  perhaps  the  eleventh,  in  some  horses. 
Now,  instead  of  going  into  the  scientific  detail  of  centres 
of  gravity,  which  might  prove  difficult  to  some  and 
tedious  to  most  readers,  we  shall  endeavor  to  render 
intelligible  all  that  is  really  important  to  be  known,  by 
a  very  simple  experiment  that  any  one  can  repeat  for 
themselves,  a  b  c  d^  fig.  i,  represents  a  piece  of  thin 
board  9  inches  long  by  4  inches  wide,  at  whose  corners 
four  legs  of  about  72  inches  long  are  fixed  on  with  one 
screw  each,  so  as  to  allow  them  to  be  moved  either  to 
front  or  rear,  but  sufficiently  tight  to  retain  them  in  the 
position  in  which  they  are  placed.  A  small  weight  is 
then  placed  exactly  on  the  centre  point  of  the  board  at 
f^  the  four  legs  being  adjusted  square,  as  at  :v  ;v  a:  at  If 
the  weight  be  not  so  heavy  as  to  overcome  the  slight 
friction  of  the  heads  of  the  screws,  the  board  will  re- 
main in  its  position — that  is,  it  will  stand  ;  but  if  it  be 

C 


34 


Seats  and  Saddles. 


removed  toward  one  end  of  the  board,  say  to  /\  it  will 
cause  the  board  to  turn  on  the  screwheads,  and,  if  not 
prevented,  slide  down  toward  f;  but  if  the  two  legs  at 
this  end  be  bent  backward  to  x^  x^^  the  board  will  sup- 


d^^-^ 

P 

V^aA^. 

/I 

; 

Ik 

v.. 

X3   ac             // 

ar2  :x     xi 

X3       J 

X3     X       Xi 

Fig.  I. 

port  the  weight  as  before.  In  like  manner,  if  the  weight 
be  removed  in  the  other  direction  to  ^'',  the  legs  being 
square,  the  same  thing  will  occur,  and  the  board  will 
turn  on  its  legs  and  slide  down  toward  /i,  which,  how- 
ever, may  be  prevented  by  adjusting  the  same  pair  of 
legs  as  before,  and  which  here  represent  the  hind  legs 
of  the  horse,  to  the  position  x^  x\  and  in  both  these 
cases  the  board  will  assume  a  slanting  position,  in  which 
the  end  a  b  will  be  lower.  Or,  the  weight  being  at/^ 
the  board  may  be  made  to  stand  by  adjusting  the  other 
■pair  of  legs,  representing  the  horse's  fore  legs,  to  the 
position  oc"  x^^  and  in  this  case  it  will  slant  the  other 
way,  the  end  c  d  being  lower. 

Now  this  is  just  what  takes  place  when  a  rider  is  put 
on  a  horse's  back  in  analogous  positions,  leaving  out  of 
the  question  for  the  moment  the  influence  of  the  over- 
hanging head  and  neck  on  the  stability  of  the  machine. 
Referring  back  to  Plate  I,  we  see,  in  fact,  that  the 
points  a  and  d  of  the  board  correspond  with  the  hip 
and  shoulder  joints  A  and  D  on  the  one  side  of  the 
horse,  as  b  and  c  do  with  the  same  joints  on  the  other, 
and  these  are  the  two  points  of  support  of  the  back, 


The  Fra7?iczvo7'k  of  the  Horse.  35 

while  p  corresponds  with  the  fourteenth  vertebra  at  E  ; 
and,  still  leaving  the  head  and  neck  out  of  the  question, 
the  rider  placed  here  would  sit  not  only  directly  over 
the  centre  of  motion^  but  also  over  the  centre  of  gravity 
— that  is  to  say,  a  central  point  equally  removed  from 
each  of  its  four  supporting  points  ;*  he  would  occupy 
the  apex  or  summit  of  a  regular  pyramid,  the  most  stable 
of  all  forms  of  construction. 

Let  us  now  suppose  the  rider,  or  the  weight,  whatever 
it  may  consist  of,  placed  farther  back  toward  the  horse's 
loins,  corresponding  to  the  point  f^  of  fig.  I.  What 
does  the  horse  do  if  compelled  to  stand  still  under  a 
burden  that  is  more  than  his  hind  legs  can  easily  sup- 
port with  perpendicular  hocks?  Let  the  reader  turn 
to  Plate  VIL,  where  the  English  hussar  there  presented 
shows  the  horse  extending  his  hind  legs  precisely  in  the 
way  indicated  in  fig.  i,  x"  x^.  What  between  the  rider 
sitting  at  the  hinder  part  of  the  saddle  and  the  weight  of 
the  enormous  pack,  the  perpendicular  passing  through 
the  centre  of  gravity  of  the  whole  falls  considerably  in 
rear  of  the  fourteenth  vertebra.  This  figure  is  photo- 
graphed from  life,  and  is  very  instructive.  The  horse, 
certainly  not  a  fair  specimen  of  the  regiment  or  of  the 
cavalry  in  general,  was  selected,  probably,  for  no  other 

*  It  is  to  be  remarked  that  the  points  on  which  the  horse's  feet 
stand  seldom  coincide  exactly — that  is.  lie  precisely  under  the  shoul- 
der and  hip  joints  respectively.  The  fore  feet  especially  seldom 
reach  even  with  the  toes,  the  perpendiculars  from  the  shoulder- 
joints.  With  Eclipse  they  did  so  naturally,  with  tolerably  well- 
built  horses  moderately  " set  up"  they  will  generally  do  so;  and  if 
the  setting-up  is  carried  beyond  a  certain  point,  they  not  only  reach 
but  project  before  them,  the  two  hind  feet  either  following  propor- 
tionately in  the  same  direction,  or  going  to  the  rear,  as  may  be  seen 
when  the  horse-dealer  "stretches  a  horse,"  in  order  to  show  how 
much  ground  it  covers.  There  is  a  great  difference,  too,  between  the 
jointed  flexible  legs  of  a  horse  and  the  rigid  straight  ones  represented 
in  fig.  I.  An  animal  always  exerts  a  certain  amount  of  muscular  ac- 
tion to  maintain  its  balance  even  when  resting. 


36  Scats  and  Saddles. 

reason  than  because  he  could  be  easily  brought  to  stand 
still  during  the  operation  ;  and  the  clearness  of  the  lines 
of  thiC  original  everywhere  except  about  the  head,  which 
he  probably  tossed  once  or  twice,  shows  that  he  did  so, 
which  was  rendered  possible,  under  the  burden  he  had 
to  bear  and  the  mode  in  which  it  was  placed  on  his 
back,  only  by  this  very  position  of  his  hind  legs ;  he 
could  71  at  st3.n(\  straight  under  it,  and  the  less  so  because 
his  hind  quarters  are  weaker  in  proportion  than  the 
forehand.  The  position  of  the  head  and  neck  has  much 
to  do  with  it,  but  this  we  shall  have  to  consider  far- 
ther on. 

The  cases  in  which  a  horse,  when  standing  still  and 
weighted  chiejly  on  his  forehand,  assumes  with  his  fore 
legs  the  positions  indicated  in  fig.  i  by  3^  x^  or  x^  x\ 
occur  so  frequently  that  it  is  quite  superfluous  to  devote 
a  figure  to  their  illustration.  Put  a  man  on  a  horse 
without  a  saddle,  and  with  nothing  but  a  halter  on  the 
animal's  head,  and  he  will  inevitably  slip  forward  till 
his  seat  comes  in  contact  with  the  withers.  Let  him 
then  stand  still,  and  the  horse,  especially  if  a  young  or 
untrained  one,  will  most  probably  shove  forward  his 
hind  or  fore  legs  in  one  of  those  two  ways. 

There  remains  a  third  case  for  consideration — namely, 
where  the  horse,  being  weighted  back  to  the  line  G  H, 
Plate  I.,  brings  his  hind  legs  under  him  up  to  the  line 
I  K,  hut  with  the  hocks  bent.  This  is  the  position  into 
which  manege  horses  have  to  be  brought  for  certain 
definite  purposes,  the  general  object  being  to  enable 
them  to  make  short  turns  on  the  hind  quarters  or  croup, 
the  forehand  turning  round  this  latter;  whereas,  with 
a  horse  weighted  on  the  centre  line  E  F,  Plate  I.,  the 
hind  and  fore  quarters  both  turn  equally  round  a  com- 
mon point,  and  with  one  weighted  principally  on  the 
forehand,  the  hind  quarters  wMll  turn  round  the  former. 

Now,  in  order  to  avoid  drawing  false  conclusions 


The  Frame-jjork  of  the  Horse.  37 

from  these  facts,  we  must  take  another  view  of  the  ques- 
tion. What  we  have  hitherto  inquired  into  is,  the  etfect 
of  certain  modes  of  distributing  the  weight  on  a  horse's 
back  when  in  a  state  of  rest  on  the  position  of  his  legs 
with  regard  to  that  weight ;  but  the  really  important 
thing  to  know  is,  how  these  various  modes  influence 
the  horse's  action.  It  was,  however,  necessary  to  enter 
into  the  preliminary  inquiry,  because  most  of  the  con- 
ditions governing  a  horse's  attitude  in  a  state  of  rest 
continue  to  be  equally  imperative  after  action  has  com- 
menced, and  some  even  more  so  ;  for  it  is  more  dan- 
gerous to  the  horse  to  lose  his  balance  when  in  motion, 
especially  at  high  degrees  of  speed,  than  when  standing 
still. 

We  may  put  the  questions  to  be  resolved  as  follows : 
ist.  How  does  the  distribution  of  the  weight  to  be  car- 
ried affect  the  horse's  speed?  and,  2dly,  How  does  action 
affect  equilibrium  or  balance? 

The  way  in  which  these  questions  present  themselves 
points  directly  to  their  solution  ;  and,  as  regards  the 
first,  it  is  to  the  horse's  legs,  and  the  mode  in  which 
they  are  moved^  that  we  must  look,  just  as  in  the  for- 
mer case  we  looked  to  the  mode  in  which  they  are 
Jixed.  There  is,  however,  a  great  difference  observable 
between  the  functions  of  the  hind  and  fore  legs  when 
we  come  to  compare  action  with  rest.  In  the  latter, 
we  were  justified  in  looking  on  both  pairs  eqiially  as 
bearers  ;  in  the  former,  the  fore  legs  are  still  employed 
chiefly  as  bearers,  and  only  in  a  smaller  degree  as  pro- 
pellers, whereas  the  hind  legs  act  chiefly  as  propellers 
and  in  a  less  degree  as  bearers.  It  should  follow  from 
this  that  we  may  favor  the  propelling  power  of  the 
hind  legs  by  weighting  forward  within  ce7'iai7i  limits; 
and  this  we  know  to  be  the  case — the  long  stride  of  the 
race-horse  is  favored  by  the  well-known  forward  seat 
of  tlie  jockey.     Well,  what  are  the  limits?     In  the  case 


38  Seats  and  Saddles. 

of  the  jockey  It  is  difficult  to  draw  a  "  hard  and  fast' 
line,  because  his  total  weight  is  inconsiderable,  and  the 
distances  to  be  got  over  are  inconsiderable  ;  and  this  is 
precisely  the  reason  why  heavier  riders,  especially  when 
they  have  to  do  long  distances,  should  not  ride  forward 
like  the  jockey,  because  they  are  sure,  sooner  or  later, 
to  use  up  their  horses'  fore  legs  by  making  them  exclu- 
sively bearers  :  even  race-horses  will  break  down  under 
the  light  weight,  and  some  jocks  are  unfortunate  in  this 
respect. 

And  if  this  be  true,  it  is  equally  so  that  placing  the 
weight  too  near  the  hind  legs  must  diminish  their  pro- 
pelling power,  by  converting  them,  in  a  greater  degree, 
into  bearers  ;  and  this  may  be  done  in  two  different 
ways,  one  of  which,  having  a  very  definite  object,  is 
good  in  its  way,  w^hile  the  other  is,  to  say  the  least,  of 
very  questionable  utility  under  any  circumstances.  The 
manege  or  school  rider  educates  his  horse  to  bear  an 
increased  proportion  of  the  weight  on  its  hind  legs, 
these  latter  being  brought  forward  zuider  the  animal 
with  bent  hocks  ;  but  his  object  not  being  speed — and  it 
is  w^ell  known  that  manege-training  diminishes  speed, 
for  which  reason,  precisely,  English  riders  scoff  at  the 
haute-ecole^  somewhat  unadvisedly,  perhaps — the  ma- 
nege-rider is  perfectly  justified  in  acting  as  he  does  in 
order  to  attain  other  objects.  It  is,  moreover,  important 
to  remark  that  if  a  horse's  hind  quarters  be  not  suffi- 
ciently strong  and  pliable  to  enable  them  to  endure  the 
increased  demand  for  bearing  without  annihilating  their 
propelling  power,  such  a  horse  will  be  incapable  of 
high  training  in  this  sense. 

The  English  hussar-horse  in  Plate  VII.  is  precisely 
in  this  position,  and  having  poor  hind  quarters,  incapa- 
ble of  sustaining  the  weight  thrown  on  them  even  with 
perpendicular  hocks,  much  less  with  his  legs  bent  under 
him  like  a  school-horse,  he  is  compelled  to  stretch  them 


The  I^ra?}iezvork  of  the  Horse.  39 

out  like  the  props  x^  x^  in  fig.  i,  and  is  therefore,  even 
in  a  state  of  rest,  more  tlian  half-way  to  the  utmost 
reach  of  his  stride  ;  for  the  whole  concern  must  roll 
over  if  he  attempted,  in  galloping,  to  bring  up  these  legs 
to  the  hoof-marks  of  tlie  fore  legs.  There  can  be  no 
question,  therefore,  but  that  weighting  in  this  manner 
diminishes  speed.* 

Before  going  on  to  the  second  question,  one  word 
more  about  the  fore  legs,  which  are,  as  has  been  said, 
essentially  bearers ;  they  are,  however,  to  a  certain 
extent  propellers,  and  must,  at  all  events  should,  exer- 
cise a  springy  lever  action,  lifting  the  horse's  body  so 
as  to  enable  the  propellers  to  shove  it  forward.  Now, 
neither  the  propulsive  nor  lifting  action  of  the  fore  legs 
can  be  properly  exercise-d  unless  their  several  compo- 
nent levers  (bones)  form  certain  angles  with  each  other, 
and  enable  the  hoof  to  touch  the  ground  lightly,  and 
ready  for  a  renewal  of  the  action.  The  fore  foot  should 
be  placed  on  the  ground  as  one  places  the  palm  of  his 
hand  on  a  table  ;  if  the  leg  come  down  straight  and 
stiff,  end  on,  like  the  props  x^  x^  of  fig.  i — which  may 
be  as  readily  caused  by  a  rider  sitting  too  far  back  on 
his  horse,  and  being  thrown  by  the  action  of  the  hind 
quarter,  with  stiffened  knees,  into  a  stirrup  that  is  hung 
far  forward  in  the  saddle,  as  by  one  that,  sitting  orig- 
inally far  forward,  comes  down  with  a  heavy  thud 
directly  on  the  horse's  withers — the  fore  legs  must 
suffer.  They  are  not  so  constructed  as  to  be  thrust 
against  the  ground,  end  on,  like  a  pole,  with  impunity ; 
and  if  either  of  these  forms  of  riding  be  carried  to  an 
extreme,  it  prevents  these  legs  from  lifting  the  forehand 
in  proper  time  or  sufficiently  ;  and  the  propellers  acting 

*  There  is  a  justification  for  this  kind  of  riding  when  the  fore  legs 
are  groggy  and  the  hind  ones  still  good  ;  and  this  expedient  is  often 
adopted,  especially  by  that  class  of  riders  who  sit  far  back  and  still 
manage  to  ruin  their  horses'  fore  legs,  of  which  more  anon. 


40 


Scats  a7id  Saddles. 


meanwhile,  down  comes  the  poor  brute  on  his  head, 
and  alas  for  the  knees  !  vSooner  or  later  horses  are  edu- 
cated into  stumbling  in  this  way,  the  fore  legs  being  by 
degrees  deprived  of  their  elasticity. 

And  now  as  to  the  question  of  the  mode  in  which 
action  affects  equilibrium  or  balance.  The  first  point 
to  be  observed  is,  that  in  walking  and  trotting  the  horse 
moves  its  diagonal  legs  simultaneously,  or  nearly  so — 
that  is  to  say,  the  off  fore  and  the  near  hind  leg  move 
together  and  alternate  in  this  action  with  the  near  fore 
and  off  hind  ones  ;  so  that,  whilst  the  one  pair  is  being 
moved  forward  the  other  sustains  the  weight  of  the 
animal ;  and  supposing  the  horse  to  be  in  equilibrio  or 
balance,  we  might  be  led  to  suppose  that  the  perpen- 
dicular line  passing  through  the  centre  of  gravity  would 
fall  exactly  in  the  centre  of  a  line  connecting  the  fore 
and  hind  foot  that  remains  on  the  ground.     But  this  is 


Fig.  2. 

not  the  case,  except  for  the  moment  at  which  the  move- 
ment is  half  completed.*  Fig.  2,  A^  will  make  this 
more  intelligible.     The  full  lines  connect  the  pairs  of 

*  In  the  manege  movement  called  piaffe^  in  which  the  horse  moves 
his  limbs  as  in  trottmg,  but  without  gaining  ground,  the  perpendicular 
in  question  does,  in  the  alternate  movement,  always  bisect  the  line 
connecting  the  two  feet  which  are  on  the  eround. 


The  Fraf}2ezvork  of  the  Horse.  41 

feet  as  they  alternately  support  the  horse,  whilst  the 
dotted  ones  represent  the  connection  of  those  in  motion. 
When  it  comes  to  the  turn  of  the  near  hind  foot  at  a^ 
and  the  off  fore  one  at  <$,  to  move  up  to  their  next 
position  at  c  d^  the  line  a  b  becomes  a  dotted  one,  «^  b^^ 
from  the  moment  this  pair  of  legs  leaves  the  ground, 
the  near  fore  and  off  hind  legs  at  c  and  b  becoming  the 
supporters  ;  and  so  on  alternately.  But  the  dotted  lines, 
in  coming  up  successively  to  the  position  of  the  full 
ones,  intersect  the  latter  at  various  points  of  their 
length  :  the  diagram  shows  them  at  the  moment  each 
successive  step  is  //«//* completed,  the  intersection  of  the 
two  showing  where  the  perpendicular  from  the  centre 
of  gravity  falls.  And  this  intersection — consequently, 
too,  the  weight  to  be  supported — is  always  traveling 
toward  the  fore  leg  that  happens  to  be  on  the  grou7?d^ 
and  therefore  the  centre  of  gravity  vibrates  alter- 
nates from  right  to  left^  and  vice  versd^  in  trotting 
and  zcaiking. 

In  cantering  and  galloping  the  case  is  different :  the 
two  legs  at  the  same  side  are  advanced  simultaneously, 
the  other  two  remaining  behind.  Still,  supposing  the 
animal  to  be  in  equilibrium,  we  observe  the  following 
to  occur  (see  fig.  3,  B^  :  the  horse  ''leads"  here  with 
the  two  off  feet — that  is,  canters  on  the  right  hand,  the 
two  near  ones  remaining  behind  so  long  as  he  remains 
on  this  hand;  there  is,  therefore,  not  the  same  alter- 
nate vibration  of  the  centre  of  gravity  from  right  to  left, 
and  vice  versd^  as  in  trotting  and  walking,  for  it  is 
always  the  same  pair  of  feet,  moreover,  just  as  in  trot- 
ting the  diagonal  ones,  that  mainly  support  the  weight. 
In  the  diagram  we  see  that  the  off  hind  and  near  fore 
legs,  connected  by  the  full  lines,  are  both  placed  close 
under  the  centre  of  gravity  in  the  succession  of  bounds, 
as  shown  Titb  c  d  efg^  etc.,  and  act  chiefly  as  bearers  ; 
while  the  near  hind  leg,  «,  acts  chiefly  as  a  propeller, 
4» 


42  Scats  and  Saddles. 

and  the  off  fore  leg,  d^  as  a  lifter,  these  two  being  con- 
nected by  dotted  lines  in  the  successive  bounds,  e  h^g  k^ 
etc.,  and  the  intersections  of  these  full  and  dotted  lines 
remain  invariable. 

This  will  serve  to  explain  why  it  is  that,  although  a 
moderate  trot  is  less  fatiguing  to  horses  than  any  other 
pace  for  a  long  journey,  on  account  of  the  pairs  of  legs 
being  used  as  bearers  and  propellers  alternately^  some 
horses  will,  under  the  rider,  break  into  a  canter,  the 
alternate  shifting  of  their  own  and  his  weight  from  right 
to  left  becoming  more  fatiguing  than  the  constant  use 
of  each  pair  of  legs  for  the  same  functions  ;  and  the 
proof  is,  that  many  of  these  horses  will  go  a  steady  trot 
in  harness  when  they  have  only  their  own  weight  to 
adjust.  It  also  explains  why  horses,  when  hurried  in 
their  trot,  and  over-weighted  in  the  forehand,  whereby 
the  bearers  (fore  legs)  become  unable  to  support  the 
weight  thrown  more  and  more  rapidly  on  them  by  the 
hind  legs,  which  now  act  solely  as  propellers,  naturally, 
and  to  save  themselves  from  falling,  "lead"  with  a  fore 
leg,  immediately  followed  by  a  hind  one — that  is  to  say, 
break  into  a  canter,  which  gives  them,  instead  of  the 
alternate  lines  of  support  a  b^b  c^c  d  (^,  fig.  2),  a  per- 
manent triangle,  k  I  ?n  (jB,  fig.  2),  as  a  basis. 

It  may  be  objected  that  some  horses  will  trot  under 
the  rider  that  will  not  do  so  in  harness  ;  no  doubt  this  is 
because  that  rider  knows  how  to  adjust  his  weight  to 
the  peculiar  exigencies  of  the  horse  ;  some,  from  various 
causes,  being  assisted  in  trotting  by  the  rider's  weight 
being  adjusted  in  a  particular  way,  of  which  a  very 
remarkable  instance  is  adduced  in  a  footnote,  p.  52,  of 
that  very  admirable  work,  "  The  Handy  Horse-Book." 
There  was  some  defect  of  the  animal's  construction  in 
this  case  that  required  the  weight  to  be  adjusted  in  a 
peculiar  way  :  the  halter  and  the  riding  barebacked  tells 
the  tale. 


The  Framczvorh  of  tJic  Horse.  43 

For  the  sake  of  simplicity  we  have  hitherto  proceeded 
on  the  supposition  that  each  of  the  two  diagonal  legs 
(of  ever}^  pair)  is  lifted  and  set  down  simultaneously. 
This  is  not  the  case.  One  hears  distinctly  four  beats  in 
the  case  of  walking  and  trotting  ;  and  two,  three,  or  four 
in  cantering  and  galloping,  according  as  the  horse's 
weight  is  adjusted  in  the  latter  movements.  Of  the  two 
legs  acting  in  concert,  the  fore  one  is  lifted  and  set  down 
somewhat  sooner  than  the  hind  one  ;  w^ere  this  not  the 
case,  a  horse  could  never  tread  in  his  own  hoof-marks, 
much  less  beyond  them,  as  we  shall  presently  show  to 
be  the  case.  A  musician  could  easily  express  on  paper, 
by  the  appropriate  notes,  the  cadence  not  only  of  each 
particular  pace,  but  for  each  individual  horse  ;*  and 
good  judges  are  well  aware  that  irregularity  of  beat 
points  out  something  amiss  in  one  or  more  legs.  The 
ear  often  conveys  to  us  valuable  impressions  on  this 
very  point  that  totally  escape  the  eye  even  of  the  most 
practiced.  We  all  have  heard  of  blind  men  being  good 
judges  of  horse-flesh. t 

Having  now  seen  the  effect  of  action  on  equilibrium, 
where  such  exists,  it  is  necessary  to  point  out  its  effects 
and  consequences  in  cases  where  it  does  not  exist.  In 
the  diagrams  A^  B^  fig.  2,  the  horse  is  made  to  tread 
with  the  hind  foot  into  the  track  of  the  fore  one  (this 
is,  in  fact,  a  consequence  of  equilibrium)  ;  but  we  see 
very  many  horses  bring  their  hind  feet  (in  all  paces) 
more  or  less  ahead  of  the  track  or  print  of  the  fore  ones  ; 
indeed,  almost  all  young  and  untrained  horses  will  do 
so,  and,  moreover,  many  whose  work  requires  them  to 
act   thus — as,  for   instance,  race-horses.     This   is  best 

*  In  the  "  Sonnambula"  Bellini  has  imitated  very  successfully  the 
beat  of  several  post-horses  trotting  and  galloping  just  before  Rudolfo 
enters  on  the  scene, 

t  The  theory  of  equilibrium,  as  set  forth  above,  is  not  affected  in 
the  Slightest  degree  by  this  want  of  perfect  coincidence  in  the  move- 
ment of  the  legs. 


44  Seats  cnid  Saddles. 

seen  by  the  hoof-marks  left  on  moist  ground  or  <sand, 
which  will  be  found  in  double  pairs  instead  of  single 
ones  after  such  horses.  Now  of  course  it  woidd  be  as 
absurd  to  suppose  that,  under  such  circumstances,  a 
horse  takes  shorter  steps  with  his  fore  legs  than  with 
the  hind  ones  as  to  ignore  what  the  immortal  Hudibras 
pointed  out  long  ago — namely,  that  when,  having  but 
one  spur,  you  make  one  side  of  your  horse  to  get  along, 
the  other  is  sure  to  follow  ;  a  fact  well  known  to  Irish 
"bull-riders"  at  Ballinasloe. 

There  is  another  class  of  horses,  that,  instead  of  over- 
stepping, come  short  of  the  track  of  the  fore  feet  with 
the  hind  ones,  and  almost  all  horses  do  this  at  starting 
— in  fact,  they  cannot  do  otherwise  ;  these,  too,  leave  a 
double  track. 

Now  those  that  overstep  will  be  usually  found  to  be 
such  as  are  over-weighted  on  the  forehand,  while  those 
that  step  short  are  usually  such  as  are  over-weiglited 
behind,  without  the  hind  legs  being  brought  under  the 
weight  in  a  bent  position  like  the  manege  horse,  or  that 
have  some  weakness,  want  of  due  proportion  or  other 
deficiency,  in  their  hind  quarters. 

When  a  horse  oversteps  with  his  hind  legs  the  track 
of  the  fore  feet  (  C,  fig.  2,),  the  succession  of  full  lines 
connecting  the  two  diagonal  feet  in  each  alternate 
movement  is  not,  as  shown  in  A^  continuous,  but 
broken  ;  there  is,  therefore,  an  interval  of  time  during 
which  the  weight  of  the  horse  (and  rider)  is  not  sup- 
ported diagonally  in  the  usual  manner,  but  vibrates,  as 
it  were,  from  one  fixed  basis  to  a  more  forward  one. 
The  animal  is  oft'  the  ground  with  all  four  legs  for  a 
moment  in  rapid  trotting,  for  instance — the  consequence 
is,  that  there  must  be  less  stability;  and  we  know  from 
experience,  that  when  this  is  carried  to  a  great  extent, 
the  horse  "  over-reaches,"  as  it  is  called,  and  comes 
down  ;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  the  advantage  is  gained 


The  Fravicwork  of  the  Horse,  45 

of  gettiiig  over  the  ground  more  rapidly  ;  for  on  com- 
paring C  with  A^  it  is  evident  that  more  ground  has 
been  covered  in  the  former  than  in  the  latter  with  the 
same  number  of  strides,  which  are  therefore  longer. 
The  advantage  conferred  by  throwing  the  weight  for- 
ward is,  therefore,  that  it  tends  to  increase  the  speed  ; 
the  disadvantages  attendant  on  it  are  diminished  sta- 
bility and  the  rapid  using  up  of  the  fore  legs,  for  it  is 
on  these  alternately  that  the  whole  weight  pivots,  as  it 
w^ere,  during  the  moments  of  vibration  from  each  fixed 
basis  to  the  succeeding  one,  as  explained  above. 

When  a  horse  steps  short — that  is  to  say,  does  not 
attain  to  the  track  of  the  fore  feet  with  the  hinder  ones 
(Z>,  fig.  2) — the  exact  contrary  of  tlie  above  takes  place  ; 
the  full  lines  connecting  the  diagonal  feet  overleap  each 
other  constantly — the  animal  covers  part  of  the  same 
ground  twice  in  its  successive  strides;  these,  therefore, 
are  sliorter,  and  it  requires  a  greater  number  of  them  to 
cover  a  given  space.  On  the  other  hand  the  stability 
is  more  perfect,  but  the  hind  legs  are  unduly  converted 
into  bearers,  and  sufier  in  consequence.  That  they 
really  are  so  is  shown  by  the  fact  of  the  short  stepping 
taking  place.  They  cannot  act  sufficiently  as  propel- 
lers.* What  is  said  here  applies  equally  to  canter  or 
gallop  as  to  trot.  It  has  been  pointed  out  above  that, 
in  the  case  of  the  horse  covering  its  own  footsteps 
exactly  and  leaving  only  a  single  track,  the  fore  legs 
are  always  lifted  somewhat  sooner  than  the  hind  ones, 
and  not  exactly  simultaneously  with  them,  which  pro- 
duces, as  we  have  seen,  the  cadence  peculiar  to  each 
pace,  audible  to  the  ear.  If  the  beat  be  regular,  and, 
the  ground  remaining  the  same,  the  intensity  of  the 
sound  alike  for  each  footstep,  the  presumption  is  that 

*  Horses  that  at  first  naturally  overstep,  will,  after  a  certain  amount 
of  work,  come  to  step  short ;  the  fore  legs  having  suffered,  they  ease 
them  by  throwing  the  weight  on  the  hind  ones. 


46  Seats  and  Saddles, 

all  four  legs  are  equally  good  ;  but  if  one  tread  be 
heavy  and  another  light,  we  may  take  it  for  granted 
that  there  is  something  amiss  with  the  foot  or  leg  that 
makes  the  latter.  With  horses,  however,  that  either 
overstep  or  tread  short  (C  and  Z>,  fig.  2),  the  case  is 
different ;  we  hear  constantly  tivo  stronger  a?zd  two 
weaker  beats^  supposing  the  legs  and  feet  to  be  sound. 
The  former — stronger  ones — will  be  found  to  proceed, 
if  we  pay  attention,  from  the  fore  legs  in  the  horse  that 
oversteps — the  two  hind  ones,  chiefly  used  as  propel- 
lers, ""dinting"  into  the  ground  with  the  toes;  with  the 
short  stepper,  on  the  contrary,  we  perceive  that  they 
proceed  from  the  hind  legs,  which  are  stamped  down  ; 
and  if  one  leg  be  defective,  we  hear,  in  such  cases,  three 
different  degrees  of  intensity  of  sound,  which  vary  ac- 
cording to  the  leg  and  the  mode  of  action.* 

We  must  now  remind  the  reader  that  we  have,  up  to 
this  point,  taken  no  account  of  the  influence  exercised 
by  the  overhanging  weight  of  the  horse's  head  and  neck 
on  the  animal's  equilibrium,  having  proceeded  altogether 
on  the  supposition  of  this  being  analogous  to  that  of 
the  little  instrument  represented  in  fig.  i.  It  has  been 
shown,  however,  that  the  centre  of  motion — that  is  to 
say,  the  point  round  which  all  other  parts  of  the  animal 
move  when  in  action,  or,  what  comes  to  the  same 
thing,  the  point  where  the  least  motion  is  felt — is  situ- 
ated somewhere  in  a  perpendicular  filling  through  the 
fourteenth  dorsal  vertebra,  Plate  I.  ;  and  it  has  been 
intimated  that  the  perpendicular  through  the  centre  of 
gravity  of  a  horse  naturally  falls  through  some  one  or 
other  of  the  vertebras  from  the  tenth  to  the  thirteenth, 
that  are  situate  nearer  to  the  neck.     A  horse  can  go 

*  Dishonest  dealers  are  well  aware  of  this,  and,  to  cover  it,  will 
sometimes  make  a  horse  temporarily  lame  on  one  foot  to  conceal  a 
permanent  defect  of  the  corresponding  one ;  the  horse  will  then  tread 
"gingerly"  on  that  pair. 


The  Framework  of  the  Horse,  47 

with  these  two  centres  \\\  the  relative  position  described 
here.  It  favors  certain  special  purposes — as,  for  in- 
stance, racing,  and  perhaps  riding  to  hounds,  to  a  cer- 
tain extent — just  as  it  suits  the  purpose  of  the  manege 
rider  to  bring  the  centre  of  gravity  farther  back  toward 
the  loins  than  the  fourteenth  vertebra  ;  but  for  all  gene- 
ral purposes  it  is  of  the  greatest  importance  that  the 
two  perpendiculars  passing  respectively  through  these 
two  centres  should  be  made  to  coincide — and  this  is  the 
aim  and  object  of  all  school-riding,  except  for  the  haul 
manege.  Above  all,  it  is  indispensable  for  military 
purposes. 

In  fact,  in  racing,  and  to  a  certain  extent  in  hunting, 
a  horse  is  not  required  to  move  otherwise  than  in 
nearly  straight  lines  or  gentle  curves.  A  jockey  that 
understands  the  work  will  ride  differently  in  the  latter 
and  the  former,  and  will  immediately  change  his  seat 
when  he  comes  "into  the  straight."*  On  the  contrary, 
the  manege  rider  requires  very  short  deliberate  turns 
at  loiv  degrees  of  speed,  and  attains  his  object  as  above 
described  ;  but  for  general  riding  it  is  of  great  import- 
ance— for  the  cavalry,  indispensable — to  be  able  to  turn 
in  sharp  curves  at  higher  degrees  of  speed. 

Instead  of  instituting  a  mathematical  and  physical 
inquiry  into  the  advantages  of  making  the  centres  ol 
gravity  and  motion  coincide,  let  us  take  from  every-flay 
life  one  or  two  instances  that  illustrate  the  principle 
very  satisfactorily.  In  a  common  two-wheeled  cart  the 
whole  body  of  the  machine  turns  round  on  the  axle, 
and  the  centre  of  motion  lies  in  a  perpendicular  falling 
through  the  mid-point  of  this.  A  carter  that  under- 
stands his  business  always  adjusts  the  load  in  such  a 
manner  that  it  neither  presses  too  much  on  the  horse's 

*The  speed  of  race-horses  is  notoriously  different  on  straight  and 
circular  courses.  The  absolutely  speedier  horse  does  not  always 
come  first  to  the  post  on  the  latter. 


48  Scats  and  Saddles. 

back  by  lying  too  far  forward,  nor  on  his  neck  by  being 
too  far  back  in  the  cart — in  fact  he  makes  the  centres 
of  motion  and  gravity  to  correspond  as  nearly  as  possi- 
ble, knowing  from  experience  that  his  horse  draws  the 
cart  with  greater  ease,  and  can  turn  corners,  etc.,  more 
readily,  when  the  load  is  thus  adjusted  than  in  any 
other  manner.  For  special  purposes,  as  going  up  hill, 
he  shifts  the  weight  forward,  but  he  is  cautious  in  turn- 
ing the  horse  when  the  load  is  on  the  back :  there  is 
always  danger  of  falling.  Sometimes,  when  his  object 
is  to  turn  the  cart  round  sharply  on  its  own  ground,  he 
shifts  the  weight  to  the  rear,  the  Jiorse  having  then  per- 
fect liberty  to  circle  round  in  the  required  direction  ;  but 
he  never  adopts  this  for  a  journey,  be  it  ever  so  short. 

Again,  in  a  ship  or  boat  of  any  kind,  people  that 
have  experienced  sea-sickness  soon  find  out  where  the 
centre  of  motion  lies,  and  nestle  round  it ;  and  the  mas- 
ter who  sails  her  knows  well  that  his  cargo  or  load, 
whatever  it  may  be,  must  be  so  stowed  away  that  the 
centre  of  gravity  of  the  whole  coincides  with  the  centre 
of  motion  of  the  vessel.  This  is  what  is  called  "  trim," 
as  we  all  know  ;  and  the  yachtsman  knows  well  the 
effect  of  sending  a  man  or  two  into  the  bows,  when  run- 
ning before  the  wind,  and  the  use  of  keeping  his  hands 
aft  when  in  stays  ;  but  he  will  be  chary  of  altering  the 
builder's  trim,  which  makes  these  two  centres  coincide 
mathematically  ;  he  may  never  find  it  again,  as  has 
happened  in  some  remarkable  instances.  Now  the 
horse  under  a  rider  must  have  the  trim  that  suits  the 
objects  of  the  latter ;  and  for  general  purposes  the 
ship-builder's  trim  or  the  carter's  trim  will  be  found  the 
most  advantageous.  The  bringing  the  rider's  body,  from 
the  hips  upward,  slightly  forward  or  backward,  will 
answer  exactly  the  same  purposes  as  the  shifting  the 
hands  in  a  yacht  or  the  sacks  in  a  cart.  It  can  answer 
no  good  purpose  to  alter  the  regular  trim.     To  persist 


The  Framework  of  the  IIo 


49 


in  sailing  a  boat  out  of  trim  ends  in  a  capsize,  or  in 
carrying  away  spars  at  least ;  just  as  riding  out  of  trim 
usually  terminates  in  a  "purl,"  and  always  in  the  prem- 
ature destruction  of  the  horse's  legs. 

And  just  as  too  heavy  a  bowsprit  or  jib-boom  will 
destroy  the  trim  of  a  boat,  the  overhanging  position  of 
the  horse's  head  and  neck  destroys  the  animal's  proper 
trim  after  a  rider  is  placed  on  its  back ;  and  the  ques- 
tion is,  therefore,  how  this  may  be  remedied,  seeing  that 
we  cannot  shift  a  head  and  neck  like  a  jib-boom.  Fig. 
3  shows  three  levers,  d  N^d  O^  d  P^  of  equal  length, 


/\ 

^4     l\ 

/  i       i^ 

d                          i 

Jf2^'      'N" 

fc 

b 

Fig.  3- 

all  moving  round  the  same  common  centre  or  prop  d, 
which  corresponds  to  the  junction  of  the  vertebrae  of  the 
neck  with  those  of  the  back  in  the  horse.  Now  the 
longer  the  lever  the  greater  its  power — that  is  to  say,  a 
given  weight  will  act  more  powerfully  at  the  extremity 
of  a  long  lever  than  of  a  short  one,  in  the  exact  propor- 
tion of  their  relative  lengths.  The  true  expression  is, 
however,  that  a  given  weight  acting  on  a  lever  of  this 
kind  exercises  a  downward  (perpendicular)  pressure  in 
direct  proportion  to  the  distance  at  which  the  perpen- 
dicular from  (or  through)  it  falls  from  the  prop.  There- 
fore, if  the  head  and  neck,  d  i\^,  be  stretched  out  hori- 
zontally, the  relative  weight  is  rejDresented  by  the  whole 
5  D 


50  Scats  and  Saddles. 

amount  by  which  the  pohit  A^Hes  outside  of  the  basis 
b  b;  and  if  the  head  and  neck  be  hfted  to  the  position 
d  O,  it  will  be  represented  by  the  shorter  distance  d  JV' ; 
and  if  still  more  elevated  to  d  P^  then  by  the  still  shorter 
one  d  JV .  Consequently,  the  relative  overhanging 
weight  of  those  portions  of  the  horse's  body  may  be 
diminished  in  proportion  as  their  position  is  brought 
nearer  to  that  represented  by  ^  P  in  the  figure  ;  and  the 
further  effect  of  this  is,  that  the  centre  of  gravity  of  the 
whole  machine  resting  on  the  basis  b  b  \s  thrown  far- 
ther back  on  the  line  da.  A  horse's  neck  is  not,  how- 
ever, an  inflexible  straight  line  like  an  ordinary  lever. 
IVIoreover,  the  head,  which  forms  no  inconsiderable  por- 
tion of  the  overhanging  weight,  can  be  bent  at  various 
angles  to  the  neck.  We  have  it,  therefore,  in  our  power 
not  only  to  diminish  the  external  preponderance  of 
these  members  by  altering  their  relative  position  as 
described  above,  but  also  actually  to  diminish  the  dis- 
tance at  which  the  perpendicular  falls  outside  the  basis — • 
first,  by  bending  the  neck,  by  which  the  length  of  the 
lever  is  curtailed  ;  and  still  further,  by  making  the  head 
assume  more  and  more  acute — that  is,  smaller — angles 
with  the  line  of  the  neck,  whether  this  latter  be  straight 
or  curved. 

This  is  shown  by  fig.  4,  where  the  natural — that  is, 
unimproved — position  of  the  head  and  neck  makes  the 
perpendicular  fall  at  the  distance  Z^iV  outside  the  basis 
of  the  animal  ;  and  this  corresponds  nearly  to  a  line  of 
gravity,  x  y^  falling  tlirough  one  of  the  dorsal  vertebrae 
nearer  to  the  neck  than  the  fourteenth,  to  which  refer- 
ence has  been  made.  And  by  elevating  the  neck  some- 
what, curving  it  at  the  same  time,  and  making  the  head 
assume  an  acuter  angle  with  it,  we  bring  back  the  cen- 
tre of  gravity  perhaps  to  ^  -^,  the  perpendicular  falling 
through  the  fourteenth  vertebra,  or  centre  of  motion — 
and  this  is  the  safest  and    most   generally  applicable 


The  Framework  of  the  Horse. 


51 


position  :    for  cavalry  purposes  it   is  absolutely  indis- 
pensable.   Finally,  if  we  bring  the  neck  still  higher  up, 


curving  it  still  more,  as  shown  in  the  figure,  we  can 
bring  the  centre  of  gravity  back  to  the  line  G  //,  as  the 
manege-rider  does;  who,  however,  at  the  same  time, 
gets  the  toes  of  the  horse's  hind  feet  up  to  the  line  IK 
in  a  bent  position,  which  naturally  brings  the  croup 
down*  (see  fig.  i,  x^  x^^. 

This  same  figure  taken  together  with  Plate  II.  brings 
us  to  the  final  result  at  which  we  have  aimed  all 
through  this  chapter — namely,  the  equilibrium  of  the 
horse  in  motion  as  compared  with  the  same  in  a  state 
of  rest.  Under  the  latter  supposition  (rest),  we  could 
only  show,  from  the  formation  of  the  spinal  column 
(back),  that  the  fourteenth  vertebra  indicates,  by  its 
peculiar  shape  and  position,  a  different  function  from 

*  It  is  necessary  to  remark  that  in  this  case  the  basis  of  the  figure 
remains  as  before  at  C  and  M,  the  hind  legs  acting  not  merely  as 
mechanical  props,  but  maintaining  a  portion  of  the  weight  by  mus« 
cular  action,  which,  however,  must  not  be  too  long  continued. 


52  Scats  and  Saddles. 

that  of  the  other  vertebrae,  all  of  which  evidently  admit 
of  movement  toward  it,  within  certain  limits,  while 
this  one,  not  being  adapted  for  this  purpose,  may  so  far 
be  considered  to  be  intended  for  the  centre  of  motion. 
But  the  construction  of  the  horse's  legs,  and  the  relative 
position  of  the  various  bones  composing  them,  furnish 
us  with  very  clear  proof  of  this  same  vertebra  being  the 
real  centre  of  motion  when  the  horse  is  in  action.  For 
there  is  one  bone  in  each  of  the  hind  and  fore  legs 
through  which  the  remainder  of  the  limb  acts  as  a  lever 
on  the  whole  frame,  either  for  the  purpose  of  propelling 
it  (hind  legs),  or  supporting  and  lifting  it  (fore  legs). 
These  are  the  thigh-bone  /,  and  the  arm-bone  v  (fig.  4), 
whose  upper  ends  have  their  fulcrums  or  points  of  sup- 
port in  the  hip-bones  A  and  shoulder-blades  D  (Plate  I.) 
respectively,  the  power  >/^ing  applied  through  the  me- 
dium of  the  remaipJry  'portions  of  the  legs  at  their 
lower  ends.  Nov/  <"V"p  -/rf  atest  result  of  lever  action  is 
exercised  at  a  righ':  yrgle  to  the  lever,  and  drawing  the 
lines  P  ^  and  R  S  through  the  lower  ends  of  these 
two  bones  at  right  angles  to  them.,  we  Jind  that  they 
intersect  (or  cross)  each  other  precisely  at  this  sa^ne 
fourteenth  vertebra.  The  figure  shows  us,  indeed, 
the  horse  in  a  state  of  rest  and  not  in  action  ;  but  it  is 
necessary  to  remember  that  the  propelling  action  of  the 
hind  leg  comtnences.,  a7td  is  precisely  the  ?nost  pozuer- 
ftd.,  when  the  thigh-bone  is  in  this  position,  diminish- 
ing in  intensity  as  the  leg  is  stretched  out  toward  i?, 
and  the  angles  become  f  itter ;  whereas,  on  the  con- 
trary, the  supporting  and  lifting  action  of  the  fore  leg 
ends.,  the  arm-bone  being  /»-s  shown  in  the  figure,  and  is 
also  most  intense,  diminifV  mg  as  the  fore  leg  is  stretched 
out  toward  P.,  and  the  *».ngles  become  flatter.  It  is 
therefore  evident,  that  both  in  a  state  of  rest  and  of 
action  the  four  teeiith  vertebra  is  constantly  the  centre 
of  motion;  and  it  is  precisely  from  our  practical  know- 


The  Fi-aDicwork  of  the  Horse.  53 

ledge  of  this  beautiful  mechanism  that  judges  of  horses 
attach  so  much  importance  to  the  length  of  these  two 
levers,  and  to  their  lying  at  right  angles  to  the  hip-bone 
and  shoulder-blade  respectively,  which  is  recognized 
by  the  form  of  the  haunch,  and  what  we  call  a  good 
shoulder  ;  the  length  of  the  stride  and  its  power  depend- 
ing, as  is  very  evident,  on  those  particulars  to  a  great 
extent. 

A  farther  proof  of  the  same  fact  may  be  gathered 
from  Plate  II.,  which  shows  the  principal  muscles,  and 
the  way  in  which  they  are  arranged.  It  is  those  in  the 
back,  loins,  hips  and  shoulders  that  concern  us  here 
more  especially  ;  and  we  perceive  that  the  principal 
ones  of  these  all  coalesce,  as  it  were,  into  the  large  flat 
tendon  covering  the  identical  portion  of  the  back  pointed 
out  as  the  centre  of  motion.  This  tendon,  like  all  others, 
is  devoid  of  contractile  power  ;  and  tlie  corresponding 
sets  of  muscles  of  the  fore  and  back  hand  exert  their 
contractile  powers  upon  it  in  opposite  directions,  while 
it  remains  stationary,  so  to  say — the  whole  process 
having  a  certain  analogy  with  the  ftimiliar  instance  of 
a  pair  of  curtains  drawn  forward  by  cords  to  the  middle 
of  a  window. 

According  to  the  laws  of  mechanics,  when  two  forces 
of  equal  intensity  cross  each  other,  as  the  lines  P  ^, 
R  S  Ao  in  fig.  4,  the  line  in  which  the  combined  result 
of  both  is  farther  propagated  will  lie  equally  distant 
from  and  between  the  two  original  forces  ;  and  this  is, 
in  the  instance  before  us,  perpendicularly  upward,  as 
shown  by  the  upper  arrow  ;  and  the  antagonistic  force 
of  gravitation — in  plain  language,  the  weight  of  the 
rider — will  be  best  met  when  it  acts  in  precisely  the 
opposite  direction,  or  perpendicularly  downward  in 
the  direction  of  the  lower  arrow  ;  and  therefore,  if  the 
weight  of  the  rider  lie,  from  his  mode  of  sitting,  across 
this  perpendicular — for  instance,  toward  the  shoulders 
5* 


54  Seats  and  Saddles. 

— the  force  coming  from  this  direction  will  be  met 
more  directly  and  consumed  in  proportion,  that  coming 
from  the  other  being  spared. 

The  two  forces  of  the  hind  and  fore  legs  may  not  be, 
however,  and  in  many  horses,  in  consequence  of  want 
of  symmetry,  are  not,  equal  in  intensity.  In  untrained 
horses  the}'  seldom  are.  Judicious  handling  and  riding 
are  nothing  else,  in  f^ict,  than  finding  a  proper  balance 
of  forces,  as  well  for  the  untrained  well-built  horse  as 
for  one  that  is  defective  in  symmetry. 

It  would  carry  us  too  far  to  go  into  the  detail  of  the 
various  modes  in  which  the  forces  exerted  by  pairs  of 
the  hind  and  fore  legs  respectively  cross  each  other — as 
also  the  centre  of  gravity  itself  in  walk,  trot,  canter,  etc. 
The  proper  methods  of  shifting  the  rider's  weight  from 
right  to  left,  so  as  to  favor  the  diagonal  action  of  the 
pairs  of  feet,  may  be  easily  deduced  from  the  study  of 
these.  But  it  is  not  our  object  to  write  a  treatise  on 
equitation  ;  and  for  intelligent  riders  what  has  been 
already  said  will  suffice  to  clear  up  the  doubts  that  may 
arise  in  practice.  Indeed  the  scope  of  the  whole  of  this 
chapter  has  been  to  set  men  thinking  for  themselves 
instead  of  working  by  rule  of  thumb,  and  not  to  dictate 
atiy  particular  method  to  them. 


CHAPTER    II. 

THE    SADDLE,  AND    ITS    INFLUENCE    ON    THE    SEAT. 

IF  it  were  merely  a  question  of  riding  bare-backed, 
we  might  at  once  go  on  to  apply  the  principles  of 
equilibrium  of  the  horse  in  motion,  as  developed  in  the 
foregoing  chapter,  to  the  various  kinds  of  seats.  It 
would  be  only  reasonable,  one  should  suppose,  to  ac- 
commodate our  saddles  to  our  seats,  just  as  we  do  every 
other  instrument  to  the  purposes  for  which  it  is  intended  ; 
but  this  is  precisely  what  is  very  seldom  done,  and  in 
the  great  majority  of  instances  the  rider  sits  his  horse 
just  in  the  fashion  his  saddle  allows,  or  perhaps  com- 
pels, him  to  do.  Three-fourths  of  the  time  and  trouble 
that  are  devoted  in  military  riding-schools  in  endeavor- 
ing to  get  the  men  to  sit  in  a  uniform  manner  might  be 
spared,  and  the  desired  result  much  more  certainlv 
attained,  by  properly  adjusting  the  saddle  to  the  horse 
and  man,  instead  of  forcing  the  latter  into  a  contest 
with  a  mechanical  difficulty  that  requires  a  constant 
exertion  of  muscular  power ;  and  this  latter,  being 
limited  in  extent  and  duration,  is  sure  to  succumb  in 
the  contest,  leaving  the  horse's  back  to  bear  the  punish- 
ment. It  is,  therefore,  a  matter  of  some  importance  to 
understand  clearl}'  the  meclianical  principles  applicable 
to  this  piece  of  horse  furniture,  as  it  will  enable  every 
rider  to  ascertain  exactly  what  he  wants,  and  how  to 

55 


56  Scats  and  Saddles. 

attain  his  object,  whatever  that  may  be — as  also  to  save 
his  horse's  back,  and  his  own  person,  and  perliaps 
neck. 

To  begin  with  the  under  surfoce  of  the  saddle — the 
portion  coming  in  contact  with  the  horse's  back — we 
find  two  principal  points  for  consideration  :  its  shape  or 
form,  and  its  size  or  extent.  One  general  mechanical 
principle  applies  to  both — namely,  that  the  larger  the 
surface  over  which  a  given  amount  of  pressure  is  equa- 
bly spread  or  divided,  the  less  will  be  the  action  on  any 
given  point  of  the  other  surface  in  contact ;  and  this 
translated  into  plain  English  means,  as  regards  shape^ 
that  the  under  surface  of  the  saddle  should  bear  as 
nearly  as  possible  the  same  relation  to  that  part  of  the 
horse's  back  it  is  intended  to  occupy  as  a  mould  does 
to  the  cast  that  is  taken  from  it,  always  saving  and 
excepting  that  strip  lying  over  the  horse's  backbone, 
which  must  remain  altogether  out  of  contact.  The 
notion  of  making  one  portion  come  into  closer  con- 
tact than  another,  "giving  a  gripe,"  with  the  intention 
of  preventing  the  saddle  slipping,  is  altogether  erro- 
neous, because  it  is  the  sum  total  of  the  pressure  which 
produces  the  cohesion  between  two  surfaces ;  its  being 
concentrated  on  one  point  or  line  does  not  increase  this 
amount,  but  is  very  likely  to  make  a  hole  in  the  horse's 
back.  Which  part  of  the  horse's  back  it  should  be  fitted 
to  has  been  "  dimly  shadowed  forth"  in  Chapter  I.,  but 
shall  be  more  clearly  and  accurately  determined  in  the 
course  of  this  present  one. 

As  regards  size  or  extent  of  surface  the  meaning  is, 
that  the  greater  this  is  with  a  given  weight,  the  less  will 
be  the  pressure  on  any  given  point,  and  consequently 
the  less  risk  of  sore  back,  provided  always  that  the 
pressure  be  equably  distribiUed  over  the  whole  surface. 
To  make  a  saddle  a  yard  long,  and  put  the  weight  alto- 
gether at  one  of  its  extremities,  is  not  the  way  to  attain 


The  Saddle.  57 

this  very  desirable  object,  as  shall  be  more  fully  explained 
presently.* 

There  must,  however,  be  some  limit  to  the  size  of  a 
saddle,  for  its  own  absolute  weight  is  a  matter  of  serious 
consideration  :  it  goes  into  the  scale  with  the  jock.  Let 
the  size  be  proportioned  to  the  weight  to  be  carried^ 
and  if  you  have  a  tender-backed  horse,  make  it  a  little 
bigger  than  would  be  otherwise  necessary.  Of  course  a 
jock  can  ride  his  race  on  a  thing  that  is  more  a  con- 
trivance for  hanging  up  a  pair  of  stirrups  than  a  saddle, 
while  a  sixteen-stone  rider  must  divide  his  weight  over 
as  large  a  surface  as  convenient. 

There  are  two  ways  in  which  the  weight  of  the  saddle 
maybe  decreased  without  its  useful  inider  surface  being 
narrowed.  The  first  is  to  avoid  extending  the  frame 
(tree),  or  indeed  any  other  part  of  the  saddle,  beyond 
the  surfaces  where  it  really  has  to  support  pressure  ;  and 
this  being  exercised  chiejly  in  a  perpendicular  direc- 
tion, it  is  not  only  useless  but  absurd  to  make  these 
extend  too  i^x  down  over  the  ribs  laterally.  The  second 
is  to  use,  for  the  tree,  materials  combining  great  strength 
and  moderate  elasticity,  with  the  least  possible  weight. 
A  civilian  saddle,  made  altogether  of  wood,  is  a  very 
clumsy  affair,  and  it  is  therefore  the  practice  to  reduce 
the  volume  of  the  wood,  and  rc;j^ain  the  strength  thus 
sacrificed  by  iron  platings.  This  metal  is,  however, 
very  inelastic  :  if  the  plates  be  made  thin  and  light, 
they  bend,  and  thus  retain  the  wood  in  a  distorted 
shape  ;  if  thick,  they  are  heavy,  and  very  liable  to  break 
with  a  severe  shock,  or,  if  not,  to  convey  this  rudely  to 
the  horse's  shoulder  or  back,  instead  of  acting  as  the 

*  As  a  familiar  illustration  of  the  principle  may  be  mentioned  the 
difference  of  depth  of  track  of  broad  and  narrow  tired  wheels,  or  of  a 
roller  as  compared  with  both  ;  or,  a  board  of  one  foot  square  will  sink 
deeper  into  soft  ground  under  a  man's  weight  than  one  of  double  that 
size  ;  and  this  latter  will  sink  as  deep  as  the  former  if  weighted  only 
at  one  end. 


58  Scats  and  Saddles. 

buffer  does  between  two  railway  trucks.  The  platings 
should  be  made  of  steel,  not  too  highly  tempered,  and 
it  ought  to  be  possible  to  devise  means  of  strengthening 
the  wood  of  that  part  of  the  tree  we  allude  to  without 
increasing  its  bulk,  and  with  a  diminution  of  its  weight. 
As  to  military  saddles,  they  are  best  made  wholly  of  wood 
and  without  any  iron  whatever.  The  necessity  of  attach- 
ing a  pack  makes  the  question  of  neat  appearance  alto- 
gether secondary,  and  the  weight  that  must  be  carried 
renders  it  imperative  to  economize  every  ounce  that  is 
possible.  Moreover,  once  introduce  iron  into  the  com- 
position of  a  saddle  and  you  must  have  a  smith  and  a 
forge  to  enable  you  to  repair  a  broken  one,  which  is 
often  out  of  the  question  in  the  field.  The  original 
Hungarian  saddle  had  not  a  particle  of  iron  on  it ;  no 
doubt  it  w^as  subject  to  breakage,  but  it  could  be  repaired 
or  a  new  one  made  at  the  side  of  a  ditch,  and  in  time 
for  the  next  day's  march.  We  nineteenth-century  men 
have  improved  it  everywhere,  especially  in  England,  up 
to  more  than  double  its  original  weight,  to  a  nearly 
total  incapacity  for  repair  or  alteration,  and  to  being  the 
most  efficient  instrument  conceivable  for  making  holes 
in  horses'  backs. 

Supposing,  now,  the  under  surface  of  the  saddle  to 
have  the  proper  form  and  size,  the  next  point  to  be 
determined  Is,  where  to  put  the  weight.  As  we  cannot, 
in  consequence  of  this  being  a  man,  divide  and  spread 
it  out  equably  over  the  whole  upper  part  of  the  saddle 
as  we  would  inert  matter  of  any  kind,  we  must  place 
the  rider's  centre  of  gravity  exactly  over  the  centre  of 
the  bearing  surface  of  the  saddle,  for  this  is  the'  only 
single  point  which,  being  loaded,  transmits  the  pressure 
equably  to  the  rest  of  the  surface.  Take  a  small  com- 
mon table,  and  place  it  exactly  level  on  sand,  grass  or 
soft  ground,  then  put  a  weight  precisely  in  the  centre 
of  the  table,  and  measure  the  depth  to  which  the  feet 


The  Saddle.  59 

lad  been  forced  into  the  soil ;  you  will  find  it  to  be  the 
same  for  all  four  feet,  if  the  surface  on  which  the  table 
stands  be  equally  soft  throughout :  then  shift  the  table  a 
few  inches,  having  previously  removed  the  weight,  and 
place  this  near  one  of  the  ends  instead  of  in  the  middle  ; 
measure  again  and  you  will  find  that  the  pair  of  legs 
nearest  to  the  weight  have  penetrated  much  deeper  than 
the  others  ;  therefore,  in  order  to  equalize  the  pressure, 
the  rider's  weight  should  be  placed  in  the  centre  of  the 
saddle. 

But  this  is  not  all.  Place  a  piece  of  stout  board  about 
two  feet  long  on  the  ground,  stand  on  one  end  of  it, 
and  you  will  find  that  the  other  loses  its  contact  with 
the  ground  and  is  more  or  less  tilted  up  into  the  air — 
the  board  has  become  a  lever.  Now,  make  a  motion 
as  if  about  to  jump,  but  without  quitting  your  position 
on  the  board  ;  this  latter  will,  being  out  of  contact  with 
the  ground  at  the  farther  end,  be  shoved  onward  in  that 
direction.  This  is  precisely  what  happens  when  a  rider 
sits  at  one  end  of  the  saddle,  generally  the  hinder  one ; 
this  one  is  pressed  down  into  the  horse's  back,  the  other, 
generally  the  front  end,  is  tilted  up,  and  at  every  move- 
ment of  the  horse  and  rider  the  whole  saddle  is  shoved 
forward  till  stopped  by  the  withers,  which  it  will 
probably  wound  ;  and  then  it  is  either  the  groom's,  or 
the  saddler's,  or  the  horse's  fault,  and  the  saddle  is 
thrown  aside  and  some  new  patent  contrivance  adopted, 
which  of  course  does  not  remedy  a  defect  that  depends 
on  the  rider  himself. 

We  may  now  go  a  step  farther.  Suppose  the  saddle 
be  placed  with  its  centre  exactly  over  the  combined 
centres  of  gravity  and  motion  (line  E  F.,  fig.  4),  and 
the  rider  in  the  centre  of  the  saddle  ;  there  will  be,  first, 
an  equable  distribution  of  the  combined  w^eight  of  horse 
and  rider  on  all  four  legs,  both  in  a  state  of  rest  and 
action  ;  secondly,  the  movements  of  the  horse,  centring 


6o  Scats  and  Saddles. 

in  this  point,  have  the  least  possible  tendency  to  disturb 
the  seat  of  the  rider  or  the  position  of  the  saddle  ; 
thirdly,  the  weight  of  the  rider  being  equably  distributed 
over  the  whole  surface  of  the  saddle  in  contact  with  the 
horse's  back,  is  therefore  less  likely  to  injure  any  one  por- 
tion of  this  ;  nor  does  it  convert  the  saddle  into  a  lever, 
and  shove  it  forward  or  backward.  Again,  let  us  sup- 
pose the  saddle  as  before,  but  the  rider  sitting  altogether 
at  its  hinder  end  for  instance,  and  there  will  be,  first, 
the  horse's  equiHbrium  destroyed  ;  secondly,  the  rider 
himself,  being  nearer  to  the  hind  legs,  will  first  receive 
an  impulse  from  the  direction  R  S^  and  be  thrown  for- 
ward till  he  meets  that  coming  from  the  direction  /^.§, 
and  these  two  forces,  instead  of  resolving  each  other 
from  one  common  point  into  their  sum  total,  neutralize 
each  other  partially  in  successive  shocks  at  the  expense 
of  the  horse's  legs.  It  will  be  said  that  the  use  of 
the  stirrups  is  to  prevent  the  rider  being  thus  thrown 
forward.  No  doubt  they  do,  and  this  kind  of  rider 
always  sticks  out  his  legs  toward  the  horse's  shoulder 
on  the  line  ^  P ;  in  other  words,  he  transmits  the 
shock  from  the  hmd  legs  to  the  frre  ones  through  the 
medium  of  the  stirrups  (this,  by  the  way,  is  the  reason 
why  stirrup-leathers  are  broken),  of  course  shoving  the 
saddle  constantly  forward,  and  these  men's  girths  can 
never  be  drawn  tight  enough  to  prevent  the  saddle 
tilting  up  in  front.  Thirdly,  of  course  his  weight  is  not 
distributed  equably  over  the  whole  under  surface  of  the 
saddle.  This  is  the  man  that  manufactures  sit-fasts,  or, 
at  the  very  least,  transforms  his  horse's  back  from  its 
natural  color  into  a  strange  pattern  of  white  and  gray 
blotches. 

Some  men  would  find  it  inconvenient  to  sit  otherwise 
than  well  back  in  their  saddles,  and  some  kinds  of 
riding  seem  to  be  more  easily  done  in  this  form  than  in 
any  other.     Now  it   is  evident  enougli  from  the  fore- 


The   Saddle.  6 1 

going,  that  if  the  part  of  the  saddle  occupied  by  the  rider 
be  placed  over  the  line  E  /^  fig.  4,  the  horse's  balance 
is  not  necessarily  deranged  or  the  centre  of  motion  in- 
terfered with  so  long  as  the  rider  keeps  this  position  ; 
but  there  always  remains  the  difficulty  about  the  unequal 
distribution  of  the  weight  and  the  saddle  slipping. 
Most  English  gentlemen  ride  more  or  less  in  this 
fashion,  and,  from  our  way  of  rising  in  the  stirrups 
while  trotting,  are  constantly  transferring  their  weight 
from  one  end  of  the  saddle  to  the  other.  Of  course  the 
horse's  balance  is  thereby  subjected  to  constant  changes, 
and  not  unfrequently  a  misunderstanding  between  horse 
and  rider  ensues,  terminating  in  a  disaster  ;  but  we  must 
not  anticipate. 

There  is  another  consideration  of  great  importance 
with  regard  to  the  place  of  the  saddle — namely,  that  it 
should  interfere  the  least  possible  with  the  action  of  the 
muscles  of  the  horse's  fore  and  back  hand.  Looking 
at  Plate  II.,  we  see  the  back  covered  with  a  broad  ten- 
don, into  which,  as  has  been  already  j^olnted  out,  the 
muscles  of  these  two  parts  are  inserted,  and  on  which 
their  contractile  action  is  exercised.  The  saddle  should 
not  extend  much,  if  at  all,  beyond  the  limits  of  this  flat 
tendon,  because,  by  doing  so,  it  will  be  sure  to  impede 
more  or  less  the  free  action  of  the  muscles,  whereas 
the  tendon  is  rather  assisted  than  impeded  in  its  func- 
tions by  a  weight  being  placed  on  it ;  and  it  is  also 
evident  that  a  rider  sitting  at  one  end  of  his  saddle  in- 
stead of  in  the  centre  will  joroduce  the  same  injurious 
effect. 

The  next  question  to  be  determined  is,  To  what  part 
of  the  saddle  should  the  girths  be  attached?  Now  it  is 
very  evident  that,  if  the  placing  of  the  weight  in  the 
centre  of  the  saddle  has  the  effect  of  transmitting  an 
equal  amount  of  pressure  to  all  that  part  of  the  horse's 
back  with  which  the  latter  is  in  contact,  the  attaching 
6 


62  Scats  and  Saddles, 

the  girths  so  as  to  act  directly  on  the  centre  of  the 
saddle  will  have  precisely  the  same  effect ;  and  ihe fric- 
tion that  results — that  is,  the  adhesiveness  produced  by 
pressure — will  be  equable  throughout,  and  of  course 
least  likely  to  injure  any  one  particular  point.  It  was  a 
very  prevalent  idea  some  years  ago,  that  "  the  point- 
strap" — that  is  to  say,  the  girth  that  was  placed  well 
forward  in  the  saddle — was  the  thing  to  depend  on  to 
prevent  the  saddle  slipping ;  but  experience  has  proved 
this  notion  to  be  erroneous  ;  and  Sir  Francis  Head,  a 
very  good  authority  on  these  matters,  has  pointed  out, 
if  we  mistake  not,  that  the  proper  jDlace  for  attaching 
the  girths  is  in  the  middle  of  the  saddle.  It  is,  no 
doubt,  quite  possible,  by  placing  the  girths  forward,  to 
accumulate  the  whole  amount  of  friction  on  one  or  two 
points  ;  but  this  is  precisely  what  bruises  horses'  withers 
without  having  power  to  prevent  the  saddle  slipping. 

Direct  proof  of  the  correctness  of  what  is  advanced 
here  may  be  obtained  in  the  following  manner :  Take  a 
longish  saddle  on  which  the  girth-straps  (or  points)  are 
fixed  forward  ;  girth  the  horse  tolerably  tightly  ;  now 
put  a  rider  in  the  saddle — the  heavier  he  is  the  more 
apparent  will  the  result  be — and  get  him  to  sit  well 
back.  You  will  find,  by  putting  your  fingers  flat  be- 
tween the  girth  and  the  horse's  chest  before  the  man 
mounts,  that,  on  his  taking  his  seat  as  above,  the  girth 
will  be  drawn  forcibly  upward;  a  proof  that  the  saddle 
must  have  relinquished  in  a  corresponding  degree  its 
previous  "  gripe"  of  the  horse's  back,  or  rather  shoulder. 
Now  let  your  man  dismount,  loosen  the  girths  a  little, 
and  put  a  surcingle  right  over  the  middle  of  the  saddle  ; 
draw  this  equally  tight  as  the  girth  had  been  previously, 
and  put  your  rider  once  more  into  the  saddle,  making 
him,  however,  sit  exactly  in  the  middle  over  the  sur- 
cingle :  your  finger,  if  placed  as  before,  will  now  tell 
you,  if  it  should  not  be  apparent  to  the  eye,  that  the  sur- 


The  Saddle.  63 

cingle  has  become  looser.,  the  saddle  has  assumed  a 
more  intimate  contact  with  the  horse's  back  throughout, 
and  is  sure  not  to  shp  or  wound. 

The  Hungarian  Puszta  rider,  or  cattle-herd,  and  most 
Orientals,  never  use  anything  but  a  surcingle,  the  great 
advantage  of  which  is  that,  having  loosed  it  to  let  their 
horses  graze,  they  can  tighten  it  with  one  pull,  and  are 
in  the  saddle  and  well  under  way  whilst  one  of  us  is  still 
fumbling  at  a  multiplicity  of  straps  :  and  moreover,  their 
saddles  remain  where  they  put  them  ;  ours  seldom  do  so 
except  by  chance.  Civilian  riders  would  not  approve 
of  the  surcingle ;  the  same  end  may,  however,  be 
attained  by  putting  the  girth-straps  in  the  middle  of  the 
•iaddle,  aizd  sitting  as  ?iearly  as  possible  over  t/ie?n. 
For  military  purposes  girths  might  be  altogether  dis- 
pensed with  and  only  a  surcingle  used. 

There  is  an  idea  prevalent  that  if  the  girths  are  placed 
as  far  back  as  indicated  here  (over  the  false  ribs),  they 
must  interfere  with  the  movement  of  the  horse's  chest 
and  lungs  much  more  than  if  placed  well  forward  over 
the  true  ones.  This  is,  however,  precisely  contrary  to 
fact:  the  true  ribs  are  firmly  supported  at  both  ends  to 
make  room  for  the  lungs  by  being  drawn  forward  :  the 
lars:est  volume  of  lung^  lies  directly  beneath  them  ;  the 
greatest  expansion  is  required  and  takes  place  here. 
Under  the  false  ribs  lie  the  thin  lobes  of  the  lungs, 
which  increase  their  volume  in  a  much  less  degree  ; 
they  are,  therefore,  supported  only  at  one  end,  and  ex- 
pand but  little,  serving  chiefly  as  supports  for  the  dia- 
phragm or  midriff''.  But  any  one  who  has  not  yet  arrived 
at  the  dignity  of  a  "  corporation"  may  easily  convince 
himself  of  the  truth  of  this  by  putting  on  a  tight-fitting 
waistcoat  and  playing  cricket  in  it:  he  will  soon  find 
the  top  buttons  gone,  and  much  less  frequently  the 
lower  ones,  whilst  a  waist-belt  will  prove  a  convenience. 
The  point  from  which  the    stirrup  is    suspended   has 


64  Scats  and  Saddles. 

nearly  an  equal  influence  on  the  stability  of  the  saddle, 
and  a  much  greater  one  on  the  form  of  the  seat  than  the 
position  of  the  girths.  If  the  stirrups  be  wrong,  all  the 
rest  being  right  will  be  of  little  avail.*  What  is  the 
legitimate  use  of  the  stirrups  besides  enabling  us  to 
mount  our  horses  ?  The  first  and  most  obvious  one  is 
to  give  the  rider  lateral  support,  to  prevent  his  slipping 
off  to  the  right  or  left  by  his  seat  revolving  round  the 
horse's  body  as  a  wheel  does  round  an  axle.  In  riding 
bare-backed,  or  on  a  saddle  without  stirrups,  if  the 
rider  falls  it  is  most  generally  to  one  side.,  and  not 
directly  forward  or  backward  ;  and  it  is  very  evident 
that  the  more  directly  U7ider  the  ridei'^s  seat  the  stir- 
rups be  suspended,  the  more  efficiently  will  they  per- 
form t/iis  duty,  the  resistance  offered  by  them  being 
perpendicularly  upward,  or  precisely  in  the  opposite 
direction  to  that  in  which  the  weight  falls,  which  is  per- 
pendicularly downward  ;  whereas,  if  the  stirrups  be 
suspended  at  a  distance  from  the  rider's  seat,  they  act  at 
an  angle  to  the  line  of  fall :  they  may,  and  always  do, 
in  such  a  position  change  the  direction  of  the  fall,  but 
they  cannot  meet  and  prevent  it  so  efficiently  as  when 
placed  under  the  seat.  The  second  use  of  these  con- 
trivances is  to  enable  the  rider,  for  various  purposes, 
to  rise  in  his  saddle  by  standing  in  the  stirrups.  And 
here  a  distinction  irust  be  drawn  as  to  whether  it  is  the 
rider's  object  to  transmit  his  own  weight  indirectly 
through  the  stirrups  to  the  saddle  at  the  same  foint  at 
which  he  previously  applied  it  directly  with  his  seat,  or 
at  some  other  point.  In  the  first  case  it  is  very  obvious 
that   the  stirrups   are    best    placed   exactly  under   the 

*  Any  defects  that  may  exist  in  the  English  cavalry  seat,  and  the 
very  glaring  ones  that  are  very  obvious  in  the  French  seat,  and  were 
the  immediate  causes  of  all  the  sore  backs  in  the  campaign  of  1859, 
depend  on  the  wrong  position  of  the  stirrup  in  the  respective  mili- 
tary saddles. 


The  Saddle.  6<^ 

rider's  seat ;  for,  putting  aside  any  changes  of  the 
position  of  his  own  body  from  the  hip  upward  he  may 
please  to  make,  everything  remains  as  before,  and  the 
equilibrium  of  the  horse  is  not  disturbed.  In  the  second 
case,  on  the  contrary,  supposing  the  stirrups  to  be  placed 
far  forward,  and  the  rider  far  back  in  the  saddle,  stand- 
ing in  the  stirrups  will  at  once  throw  the  weight  from 
one  end  of  the  saddle  to  the  other  ;  make  this  press  par- 
tially on  the  horse's  back  instead  of  equably,  as  in  the 
first  case,  which  see-sawing  must  tend  to  make  the  sad- 
dle shift,  and  must  also  alter  the  equilibrium  of  the 
horse,  throwing  its  weight  more  forward,  consequently 
rendering  the  animal  incapable  of  turning  sharply  and 
handily,  and,  if  done  suddenly,  frequently  even  bringing 
it  to  a  dead  halt.  In  hunting,  sharp  turns  are  seldom 
required,  whilst  speed  is  ;  and,  therefore,  there  is  a  jus- 
tillcation  for  throwing  the  wxight  forward  or  backward, 
especially  in  jumping  ;  but  even  this  has  certain  limits, 
of  which  more  hereafter.  Again,  in  road-riding,  the 
English  fashion  of  trotting  requires  a  man  to  rise  in  his 
stirrups  ;  but  there  is  really  no  reason  why  he  should 
therefore  sacrifice  the  lateral  support  spoken  of  above 
to  the  extent  one  often  sees,  or  throw  such  a  surplusage 
of  weight  on  his  horse's  forehand.  There  can  be  no 
doubt  that  he  rides  less  safely  by  so  doing,  for  a  sharp 
wheel-round  of  a  shying  horse  is  more  likely  to  bring 
him  down  ;  but  this  question  of  trotting  must  be  also 
reserved  for  a  future  chapter. 

For  military  purposes  the  stirrups  fjiust  be  placed  in 
the  centre  of  the  saddle  directly  under  the  rider's  seat : 
there  is  no  alternative.  The  cavalry  soldier  is  often 
compelled  in  the  use  of  his  weapons  to  stand  in  his  stir- 
rups. If  by  doing  so  the  equilibrium  of  his  horse  be 
altered,  he  disables  the  animal  and  himself  at  the  most 
critical  moment.  The  power  of  turning  rapidly  to 
administer  or  avoid  a  sword-cut  or  lance-thrust  is  seri- 
6*  E 


66  Seals  and  Saddles. 

ously  impaired  if  the  stirrups  be  placed  forward,  and 
the  whole  concern  makes  a  heavy  pitch  into  the  trough 
of  the  sea,  just  at  the  moment  it  should  "  run  up  into 
the  wind's  eye."  The  late  Sir  Charles  Napier  relates 
in  one  of  his  books  a  lamentable  story  of  a  fine  gallant 
English  sergeant  who  lost  both  his  arms  in  this  way  ; 
and  officers  who  have  served  in  India  or  Algiers  often 
complain  that  there  is  no  preventing  the  native  horse- 
men getting  behind  their  people's  back,  where,  of 
course,  they  have  it  all  their  own  way,  like  a  bull  in  a 
china  shop.  Sir  Charles  throws  the  blame  altogether 
on  the  enormous  pack  the  regulars  are  compelled  to  put 
on  their  horses'  backs.  This  has,  no  doubt,  its  own 
special  influence  ;  but  any  one  who  has  seen  cavalry 
skirmishing,  and  understands  the  mechanism  we  are 
laboring  to  explain,  must  have  also  seen  that  the  position 
of  the  stirrup  acting  on  the  rider's  seat*  has  a  great  deal 
to  do  with  it. 

We  mentioned  above  that  the  man  riding  bare-backed, 
or  on  a  saddle  without  stirrups,  most  frequently  tumbles 
off'  to  the  right  or  left ;  well,  it  will  be  found  that  ivith 
stirrups,  especially  when  the  latter  are  very  far  forward 
and  very  shorty  the  catastrophe  generally  supervenes 
right  ahead,  the  performer  being  projected  in  trajecto- 
ries, not  yet  described  in  ballistic  works,  away  over  his 
steed's  neck,  to  the  great  damage  of  collar-bones.  It  is 
like  having  one's  hand  pierced  by  leaning  on  a  reed — 
the  short  stirrup  that  is  relied  on  for  safety  furnishing 
an  admirable  lever-point  for  the  equine  catapult. 

And  this  brings  us  to  the  length  of  the  stirrup.  The 
length  of  the  arm  is  generally  prescribed  as  being  the 
proper  length  for  the  stirrup.     This  might  answer  well 

*  Almost  all  "  rider  nations"  place  their  stirrups  exactly  under 
their  seat.  This  will  be  evident  from  an  inspection  of  some  of  our 
Plates,  as  also  that  the  example  has  been  followed  in  the  best  Conti- 
nental cavalries. 


The  Saddle.  67 

enough  if  stirrups  were  always  suspended  at  the  same 
perpendicular  distance  from  the  upper  surface  of  the 
saddle,  and  also  right  under  the  rider's  seat,  and  if 
men's  arms  and  legs  al-jcays  bore  a  fixed  proportion  to 
one  another;  all  of  which  "ifs"  turn  out  on  nearer  in- 
spection to  be  algebraical  jv's — that  is,  very  variable 
quantities.  To  adjust  the  stirrups  precisely^  the  rider 
had  better  first  mount,  and  then,  letting  these  instru- 
ments loose  altogether,  shake  himself  down  into  the 
loivest  part  of  the  saddle,  wherever  that  may  be  situ- 
ated ;  his  assistant  may  then  adjust  the  stirrups  to  a 
convenient  length.  There  is  no  use  in  attempting  to 
ignore  this  lowest  pointy  because  every  motion  of  the 
horse  tends  invariably  to  throw  him  into  it,  and  if  he 
does  persist  in  ignoi'ing  it,  he  will  find  himself  a  mere 
stuTup-rider,  which  is,  in  its  way,  quite  as  bad  as  a 
•ein-rider,  the  combination  of  both  being  the  very 
climax  of  bad  riding — in  fact  that  monkey-like  fashion 
of  clinging  to  your  steed  vulgarly  termed  "  sticking  a 
horse."  For  the  absolute  length  of  the  stirrup  no 
special  rule  can  be  given  applicable  to  all  circum- 
stances and  to  all  kinds  of  riding;  in  speaking  of  the 
different  kinds  of  seats  in  a  subsequent  chapter  we 
shall  have  to  return  to  this  point.  The  only  general 
rule  that  can  be  given  is,  never  make  your  stirrups  so 
long  as  to  render  your  tread  on  them  insecure^  nor  so 
short  as  to  allow  them  to  cramp  up  your  legs  and  de- 
prive them  of  the  requisite  power  of  motion,  making 
you  depend  on  the  stirrups  and  not  on  your  seat  for 
your  position  in  the  saddle.  The  Orientals  all  ride  in 
the  short  stirrups  in  which  they  can  stand  resting  on 
the  entire  sole  of  their  feet  on  account  of  the  shovel 
shape  and  the  size  of  this  contrivance  ;  but  their  stir- 
rups are  hung  directly  under  their  seat,  and  in  a  very 
different  position  from  that  which  they  occupy  in  our 
saddles  (see  Plate  IV).     Short  stirrups  on  an  English 


68  Scats  a7id  Saddles. 

saddle  give  quite  a  diflerent  form  to  the  seat  in  conse- 
quence. 

With  respect  to  the  upper  surface  or  seat  of  the  sad- 
dle, we  have  to  remark,  that  as  the  under  one  must  be 
large  in  proportion  to  the  weight,  so  this  should  be 
roomy  in  proportion  to  the  bulk  of  the  rider ;  a  heavy 
man  will  always  require  a  large  under  surface,  but  not 
equally  constantly  a  large  upper  one,  for  it  is  bone  that 
weighs  ;  and  as,  whatever  the  seat  may  be,  it  should  be 
permanent  in  some  one  part  of  the  saddle,  there  is  not 
only  no  use,  but  a  positive  disadvantage,  on  account  of 
weight,  in  having  it  larger  above  than  is  absolutely 
necessary.  It  is,  however,  the  form  of  the  upper  sur- 
face that  decides  most  as  to  the  permanence  of  the  seat. 
If  what  we  may  call  the  ridge  of  the  saddle  be  perfectly 
horizontal,  the  seat  will  be  determined  chiefly  by  the 
length  and  position  of  the  stirrup,  because  the  two  sur- 
faces, rider  and  saddle,  are  in  imperfect  contact ;  and  it 
is  therefore  usual  to  dip  this  ridge  at  some  point  and 
spread  it  out  into  a  more  or  less  concave  surface.  Now 
the  form  of  the  seat  will  depend  altogether  on  the  rela- 
tive position  of  the  loivest  poijit  of  this  dip  ;  if  it  be 
placed  far  back,  the  rider  will  remain  there,  and  if  it  be 
placed  in  the  centre,  the  seat  will  be  also  central ;  and 
for  military  purposes  enough  has  been  said  to  show  that 
this  is  its  proper  position.  Nothing  can  be  more  cer- 
tain than  this,  that  it  is  the  saddler,  and  not  the  in- 
structor of  equitation,  that  can  most  effectually  and 
certainly  produce  the  uniformity  of  seat  which  is  so 
desirable  ;  but  unfortunately  few  people  ever  think  of 
this.  The  sum  of  the  whole  matter  is  this — the  laj'ger 
the  surfaces  of  the  rider  and  saddle  brought  into  per- 
niaitent  contact.,  the  firmer  will  be  the  seat.,  and  the 
less  will  it  depend  on  the  stirrups  or  the  rei?zs. 

The  saddle-flaps  serve  in  some  cases  to  increase,  in 


The  Saddle.  69 

others  they  absolutely  diminish,  the  surface  of  contact 
between  the  rider  and  horse ;  their  chief  use  is  to  pro- 
tect the  man's  legs  from  injury  by  the  girth-buckles, 
straps,  etc.  For  military  saddles  nothing  can  be  more 
preposterous  than  a  stiff  flap  interposed  between  the 
rider's  legs  and  horse's  side,  because  the  surcingle  and 
shabrack  cover  all  these  things  effectually,  and  perfectly 
attain  this  object  of  the  flap  of  the  English  civilian 
saddle.  This  stiff  flap  is  therefore  an  unnecessary 
additional  weight,  and  it  keeps,  moreover,  the  leg  out 
of  its  proper  position.  To  sum  up  the  whole  of  the 
foregoing,  we  may  describe  the  general  rule  for  seats  to 
be  this — the  saddle  in  the  centre  of  the  horse^s  back ; 
the  girths.,  stirrups  a?id  rider  about  the  centre  0/ 
the  saddle;  in  short, 

"  The  maxim  for  the  horsy  tribe  is 
Horatian — '  Medio  tulissimus  ibis.' " 

There  are  certain  appendages  to  the  saddle  that  re- 
quire a  short  notice.  And  first  of  all,  which  is  better, 
the  bhuiket  or  the  feltplate  under  the  light  cavalry 
saddle?  The  advantages  of  the  former  are,  that  by 
folding  it  in  different  ways  you  may  vary  its  thickness 
at  difierent  points,  and  by  this  means  adjust  the  saddle 
not  only  to  all  the  different  peculiarities  presented  by 
the  backs  of  various  horses,  but  also  equally  to  the 
changes  of  form  of  one  and  the  same  back,  induced  by 
changes  of  condition.  You  can  do  nothing  of  the  sort 
with  the  feltplate  ;  this  presupposes  all  horses'  backs 
alike,  which  is  very  wide  of  the  mark  ;  and,  moreover, 
each  incHvidual  back  permanent  in  its  form,  whatever 
change  the  condition  may  have  undergone — which  is 
equally  so.  The  blanket  men  say  "Yes;  and,  more- 
over, you  can  defend  your  horse  from  the  cold  in  winter 
bivouacs,  and  keep  him  serviceable  for  a  much  longer 


70  Scats  and  Saddles. 

time."*  "Ay,"  say  the  opponents,  ''but  the  man 
covers  himself  up  and  leaves  his  horse  to  shiver."  There 
is  probably  some  truth  in  this  ;  and,  at  all  events,  the 
man  is  kept  w^arm,  whereas  the  felt  can  never  be  mis- 
appropriated in  this  way.  The  advocates  of  the  felt 
say,  farther,  in  cases  of  alarm  the  horses  can  be  saddled 
quicker,  which  is  indisputable  to  a  certain  extent;  for 
whether  the  blanket  be  used  as  a  covering  for  the  horse 
or  man,  it  takes  some  time  and  two  men  to  fold  it 
properly  if  once  unfolded.  The  result  is  this :  if  the 
felt  happens  to  fit,  the  horse  will  be  quickly  and  -well 
saddled — if  not,  quickly  and  badly ;  on  the  other  hand, 
two  or  three  minutes  more  rnay  ensure  all  the  horses 
being  well  saddled,  provided  the  men  know  how  to  fold 
their  blankets,  and  are  made  to  do  so.  Two  or  three 
minutes  may  be,  however,  of  great  importance  ;  let  us 
endeavor  to  estimate  their  precise  value.  Cavalry  on 
outpost  duty  never  unsaddles,  therefore  it  can  suffer 
no  loss  of  time  on  account  of  the  blanket ;  and  cavalry 
in  camp  or  bivouac  is,  or  at  least  should  be,  always 
covered  by  outposts,  and  is  therefore  scarcely  liable  to 
surprise,  and  two  or  three  minutes  can  make  no  possible 
difference  where  it  is  a  question  of  preserving  the  effi- 
ciency of  the  horses  for  weeks,  months  and  years.  But 
the  superior  officers  are  impatient,  their  personal  credit 
is  involved  in  the  turning  out  rapidly  ;  ay,  that's  it.  Let 
the  blankets  be  properly  folded  at  daybreak  regularly  ; 
and  let  the  horses  be  saddled  too  with  loose  girths, 
whether  you  know  if  you  are  to  turn  out  or  not,  and 
there  is  an  end  of  the  blanket  difficulty  and  of  many 
others  too. 

With  regard  to  the  crupper.  If  your  saddle  fit  prop- 
erly, and  if  you  sit  in  the  proper  way,  you  don't  need 

*  The  greatest  possible  luxury  in  the  matter  of  blankets  is,  how- 
ever, powerless  to  keep  horses  alive  whose  rations  consist  of  their 
neighbors'  tails,  as  in  the  Crimea. 


The  Saddle,  ^i 

a  crupper.  If  neither  of  these  "  ifs"  be  a  verity,  then 
the  crupper  may  prevent  the  saddle  running  forward, 
but  will  also  wound  the  steed's  tail,  or  set  it  a-kicking, 
especially  if  a  mare — perhaps,  under  favorable  circum- 
stances, both  together ;  in  either  case  you  must  take  off 
the  crupper,  and  what  then?  It  is  better  to  begin 
voluntarily  with  a  well-fitting  saddle  and  a  good  seat, 
than  be  kicked  into  it ;  and  therefore  the  cavalry  crup- 
per is  an  absurdity  which  every  one  else  in  the  world 
has  thrown  away  ages  ago  ;  and  the  Austrian,  Bavarian, 
and,  we  believe,  many  other  German  cavalries,  dis- 
carded some  five  or  six  years  since. 

The  breastplate  might  perhaps,  in  most  cases,  be  dis- 
pensed with,  but  in  others  it  is  useful  in  keeping  the 
girths  in  their  place  ;  besides  that,  it  gives  a  point  of 
attachment  for  some  of  the  pack,  and  is  indubitably  ad- 
vantageous for  lasso  draught ;  it  can  do  no  harm,  more- 
over, unless  it  be  too  tight,  which  is  generally  the  result 
of  cavalry  commanding  ofl!icers  being  as  pedantic  about 
the  rosette  attached  to  it  being  at  the  same  height 
throughout  their  front,  as  infantry  ones  are  about  the 
mess-tins  being  mathematically  correct  on  the  tops  of 
the  knapsacks. 


CHAPTER    III. 

SEATS. 

WHEN  one  observes  the  great  variety  of  seats  on 
horseback  that  present  themselves  to  our  notice 
every  day,  and  their  totally  contradictory  character  in 
the  most  important  respects,  a  certain  amount  of  bewil- 
derment necessarily  ensues,  which  resolves  itself  into  a 
curious  dilemma.  We  can  scarcely  admit  that  they  are 
all  wrong",  and  it  seems  equally  impossible  to  assert  that 
they  are  all  right ;  which,  then,  is  the  right  and  which 
the  wrong?  or  is  a  seat  on  horseback  something  outside 
of  the  laws  that  govern  the  rest  of  animate  and  inani- 
mate nature,  subject  to  no  rule,  defiant  of  all  generaliza- 
tion, and,  in  fact,  a  thing  fer  se — a  sort  of  mysterious 
existence  beyond  our  ken  ?  What,  for  instance,  can  be 
more  contradictory  than  to  see  one  man  sitting  at  one 
end  of  the  saddle,  as  in  an  easy-chair,  with  his  legs 
tucked  up  at  the  other,  till  his  knees  are  nearly  on  a 
level  with  the  pommel ;  while  a  second,  sitting  in  his 
fork,  sticks  out  his  legs  as  stiff  and  as  far  away  from  the 
the  horse  as  he  can,  taking  for  his  model  what  is  very 
aptly  named  in  "  Harry  Lorrequer"  "  the  pair-of-tongs- 
across-a-stone-wall  seat" — for  an  illustration  of  which 
see  Plate  V.  And  there  are  no  end  of  intermediate 
seats  between  these  two,  with  the  most  wonderful  curv- 
atures of  the  rider's  back,  knowing  positions  of  the  head 
72 


Seats.  73 

and  artistic  contortions  of  his  lower  extremities,  each 
and  all  of  which  have  their  partisans  and  admirers. 

We  set  out  with  the  declaration  that  we  have  no 
desire  or  intention  to  set  up  any  one  kind  of  seat  as  a 
model ;  but  this  is  no  reason  why  we  should  not  try  to 
find  out  and  lay  before  our  readers  what  are  the  real 
essentials,  leaving  them  to  adopt  whatever  suits  their 
purpose  best.  Now  the  seat  on  horseback  is  main- 
tained either  by  balancing  or  by  friction — that  is  to  say, 
the  greater  or  less  amount  of  the  rider's  sitting  parts 
brought  into  contact  with  the  saddle — or  by  the  support 
given  by  the  stirrup  ;  and  it  is  easy  to  perceive  that 
such  a  combination  of  all  three  means  as  leaves  each 
individual  07ie  its  greatest  amount  of  efficiency  will 
necessarily  secure  a  much  greater  amount  of  stability 
than  can  be  attained  by  depending  on  one  to  the  neglect 
of  the  other  two,  or  even  depending  on  two  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  sacrifice  the  third.  The  best  and  safest 
seat  will  be  always  that  which  depends  exclusively  on 
no  one  means  of  support,  but  uses  them  all  in  the  best 
manner. 

In  order  to  answer  the  question,  Which  of  the  three 
is  the  most  important?  it  becomes  necessary  to  review 
the  positive  value  of  each  in  detail  ;  and  first  as  to 
balance. 

It  has  been  shown,  in  the  preceding  chapters,  to  what 
an  extent  the  action  of  the  horse  depends  on  the  balance 
or  poise  of  rider  and  bearer  taken  together,  and  how 
every  modification  of  the  latter  affects  the  former,  and 
therefore,  that  not  only  some  one  particular  poise  must 
be  adopted,  but  also  maintained,  for  each  kind  of  riding. 
Again,  it  has  been  shown  that  the  stability  of  the  saddle 
and  the  safety  of  the  horse's  back  depend  to  a  great 
extent  on  the  stability  of  the  rider's  weight — that  is  to 
say,  on  his  poise  or  balance.  In  addition  to  these  two 
items  comes  a  tliird  one — namely,  the  value  of  poise  or 
7 


74  Sea/s  and  Saddles. 

balance  to  the  rider  himself.  Why  does  anything  tum- 
ble down  from  the  position  it  has  hitherto  occupied? 
Because  it  loses  its  balance  :  and  the  rider  that  does  so 
is  sure  to  meet  the  same  fate,  unless  the  friction  of  his 
seat,  the  stirrup  or  the  hoi'se's  mane  is  called  to  the 
rescue.  Can  there  be  any  doubt  as  to  the  great  value 
of  poise  or  balance?     We  think  not. 

As  to  friction,  this  depends,  in  the  case  of  two  inani- 
mate  bodies  coming  in  contact, ^ri^/,  on  the  nature  of 
their  respective  surfaces,  which  we  must  leave  altogether 
out  of  question  here  ;*  and,  secondly^  on  the  absolute 
weight  with  which  the  upper  one  presses  on  the  lower 
one.  The  amount  of  surface  of  contact  does  7iot  increase 
friction,  but,  of  course,  if  the  whole  weight  be  brought 
to  bear  on  one  or  two  points  of  a  rider's  seat,  these  will 
soon  require  soap-plaster.  Here,  however,  we  have  to 
do  with  an  inanimate  body,  the  saddle,  on  the  one 
hand,  and  a  very  lively  one,  the  rider's  seat  and  legs,  on 
the  other,  whose  muscular  action  may  form  a  very  im- 
portant adjunct  to  the  dead  weight  in  increasing  fric- 
tion ;  and  the  amount  of  this  action  does  increase  with 
the  surfaces  in  contact,  because  a  greater  number  of 
muscles  are  brought  into  action ;  therefore,  w^e  can 
never  bring  too  great  an  amount  of  the  surfaces  of  our 
seat  and  legs  into  contact  with  the  saddle.  The  friction 
arisino^  from  absolute  weio^ht  no  rider  will  be  inclined 
to  increase  by  loading  himself.  Whether  that  derived 
from  muscular  action  shall  become  an  important  ad- 
dition to  the  former,  or  merely  an  independent  alterna- 
tive, is,  after  all,  the  great  point  at  issue,  and  that  which 
constitutes  the  real  difference  between  seats.  Muscu- 
lar action  will  prove  an  addition  to  the  friction  derived 

*  A  very  smooth  surface  to  the  saddle  lessens  the  friction,  for 
which  reason  school  saddles  are  usually  covered  with  tan-colored 
buckskin,  whilst  many  Orientals  adopt  sheepskins  with  wool  on, 
coarse  rugs  or  mats,  etc. 


Seats.  ^5 

from  weight  If  both  be  exercised  simultaneously  nearly 
at  the  same  point,  and  in  the  same  direction  ;  if  not,  the 
rider  will  have  to  depend  alternately  on  one  or  the 
other,  instead  of  both  taken  together,  which  is,  of  course, 
much  less  advantageous. 

In  some  forms  of  seats  the  rider  depends  almost  en- 
tirely on  the  pressure  of  his  knees  against  the  fore  part 
of  the  saddle,  and  relinquishes  altogether  the  advan- 
tages derived  from  steady  contact  of  his  seat  with  the 
other  end  of  it.  For  riding  a  race  or  a  fox-hunt  this 
may  answer  ;  but  muscular  power  is  subject  to  waste, 
and  this  method  will  never  do  for  continuous  exertion, 
being  much  too  fatiguing  to  the  rider,  and  therefore 
uncertain. 

Nor  is  this  all.  "Making,"  as  Sir  F.  Head  says,  in 
describing  t/ie  Jninting-seat^^  "  the  knee  a  pivot,  or 
rather  hinge,  and  the  legs  beneath  them  the  grasp,"  is 
like  holding  a  horse-pistol  between  the  tips  of  the  fore- 
finger and  thumb,  instead  of  grasping  it  in  the  full 
hand.  If  the  weapon  kicks  on  being  discharged,  it  will 
revolve  on  the  hinge  with  a  vengeance  ;  and  if  the 
horse  perform  a  similar  feat,  the  upper  two-thirds  of  the 
rider's  body  do  the  same  round  the  knee-pivot .  The 
leg,  from  the  knee  downward,  is  much  less  fitted  for 
holding  or  grasping  than  the  thigh  is  ;  moreover,  it  has 
other  functions  to  perform  that  interfere  with  this.  The 
best  hunting,  steeple-chase  and  military  riders  we  have 
ever  seen  all  agreed  in  this  one  point  at  least — that  of 
depending  on  the  thigh,  and  not  the  "  undcr-leg,"  for 
their  seat ;  and  hence  is  derived  the  grand  cardinal 
rule  for  a  good  seat :  "  From  the  hips  upward  movable^ 
in  order  to  enable  the  rider  to  vary  his  balance  or  use 
his  weapons  ;  from  the  knee  downward  movable^  for 
the  use  of  the  spur  and  the  control  of  the  horse's  hind 
legs ;  and  between  these  two  points,  hip  and  knee, 
*  "  The  Horse  and  his  Rider,"  p.  31. 


^6  Scats  and  Saddles, 

Jixed^  for  the  seat."  According  to  this  rule,  the  middle 
of  the  rider  adheres,  both  by  weight  and  muscular 
action,  to  the  middle  of  the  horse  ;  according  to  the 
other  system,  the  lower  third  of  the  rider  clings,  by 
muscular  action  aloiie^  to  the  horse's  shoulders,  aided, 
perhaps,  to  a  certain  extent,  by  the  stirrup. 

But  this  brings  us  to  the  stirrup.-  Riding  was  cer 
tainly  invented  and  practiced  before  saddles  existed ; 
and  it  is  nearly  equally  certain  that  the  first  saddles, 
pads,  or  whatever  they  were,  had  no  stirrups,  these  con- 
trivances having  been  subsequently  invented  for  the  pur- 
pose of  giving  the  rider  further  aid  in  addition  to  that 
derived  from  balance  and  friction.  Even  now-a-days 
many  a  man  can  ride  bare-backed  to  hounds  or  in  the 
melee  without  stirrups  ;  and  this  very  short  statement 
of  facts  ought,  we  think,  to  go  far  to  prove  that  stirrups 
are  very  subordinate  in  value  to  balance  and  friction 
taken  togethei'^  which  is  precisely  why  we  have  used 
the  term  stirrup-riding  in  an  opprobrious  sense.  The 
"  tongs-across-a-wall  seat"  depends  on  balance  and  the 
stirrup,  renouncing  all  contact  of  the  legs  with  the 
horse's  body  ;  the  wash-ball  seat  goes  farther,  and  ab- 
jures balance.  In  Chapter  II.,  when  speaking  of  the 
position  of  the  stirrup  in  the  saddle,  we  could  only  give 
some  of  the  reasons  why  this  should  be  central.  We 
have  now  arrived  at  a  point  that  renders  it  possible  to 
give  the  remaining  ones,  which  are  of  no  less  import- 
ance. They  are  these :  The  interior  surfaces  of  a  toler- 
ably well-built  man's  thighs  and  legs,  from  the  fork  to 
the  heels,  are  curved  in  concave  or  hollow  sweeps,  that 
may  be  varied  from  the  knee  dowmvard  by  turning  the 
toes  more  or  less  outward  ;*  and  if  we  look  at  a  horse 
from  the  rear,  it  will  be  very  evident  that  his  midship 

*  It  is  therefore  very  absurd  to  insist  on  any  specific  measure  for 
this.  Even  a  round-thighed  man  may  get  up  a  hollow  curve  by  turn- 
ing out  his  toes  a  little  in  excess. 


Scats.  77 

section — that  is  to  say,  the  lines  we  should  see  if  the 
animal  were  chopped  fairly  in  two  right  through  his 
fourteenth  vertebra — coincides  very  accr.rately  with  the 
sweep  of  the  rider's  legs.  At  top,  no  doubt,  the  figure 
is  flatter  than  the  man's  fork,  but  the  ridge  of  the  saddle 
fills  up  the  empty  space  to  a  certain  extent ;  besides 
which,  no  good  rider  sits  in  his  fork^  but  on  his  seat. 
Further,  although  the  horse's  body  is  rounded  away 
under  the  belly,  the  possibility  of  varying  the  curve  of 
the  leg  from  the  knee  downward  enables  the  rider  to 
preserve  contact  very  low  down  :  he  can  encircle  his 
horse  nearly  two-thirds  when  sitting  on  this  line. 

If,  on  the  contrary,  the  stirrup  be  placed  too  far  for- 
ward, the  thigh  runs  diagonally  forward  toward  the 
horse's  shoulder.  Now  let  us  look  at  the  horse  from 
the  front,  standing  exactly  opposite  to  his  forehead. 
We  see  at  once  that  the  animal's  body,  besides  being 
narrower  at  the  shoulders  than  at  the  midship  section, 
presents,  first  of  all,  a  concave  curve  from  this  to  the 
shoulder,  and  then  a  convex  one  over  the  shoulder. 
The  former  of  these  has  no  adaptation  whatever  to  the 
curve  of  the  rider's  thighs,  and  this  he  cannot  change  ; 
to  remedy  which  the  fashion  of  padding  the  saddle-flaps 
was  introduced.  Sir  F.  Head  says  it  is  going  out  again. 
The  efiect  of  this  padding  or  increased  thickness  be- 
tween the  rider's  leg  and  the  horse's  body  is,  however, 
to  bring  the  former,  frotn  the  knee  doivnward^  right 
away  from  the  latter,  as  any  one  can  see  who  looks  at 
this  kind  of  rider  from  the  front ;  and  it  is  therefore 
evident  that  the  greatest  amount  of  adhesive  surface  is 
obtained  by  placing  the  stirrup  nearly  under  the  rider 
and  making  the  tread  on  it  perpendicular,  instead  of  in 
an  acute  angle  with  the  horizon. 

There  is  another  point  to  be  considered.  Is  there 
anything  gained  by  the  rider's  leg  from  the  knee  down- 
ward being  in  close  contact  with  the  horse's  body  at 
7» 


^8  .Scats  and  Saddles. 

the  midship  section,  or  lost  by  its  being  just  behind  the 
shoulder,  whether  in  or  out  of  contact?  The  gain  is 
simply  this,  that  in  the  first  case  we  can  exercise  imme- 
diately an  absolute  control  over  the  horse's  hind  legs, 
and  make  him  place  them  as  we  please — and  these 
being  the  propellers,  we  have  entire  mastery  ;  whereas 
the  loss  occasioned  by  the  stirrup  being  far  forward 
consists  in  our  generally  coming  much  too  late  with 
our  leg,  when  we  have  occasion  to  use  it  in  this  way, 
the  horse  having  swerved  right  round  before  we  can  get 
at  him  and  compel  him  to  go  ahead  ;  in  our  having  to 
pull  right  against  the  stirrup-leather;  and,  worst  of  all, 
in  our  being  compelled  to  loosen  our  whole  seat  in  con- 
sequence of  our  thigh-bones  refusing  to  bend.  The  effect 
of  these  two  positions  of  the  stirrups  and  forms  of  seat  on 
the  stability  of  the  latter,  when  it  becomes  necessary  to 
stand  or  rise  in  the  former,  we  must  reserve  for  a  little. 
There  is  a  notion  prevalent  that  a  military  seat  is  a 
fork-seat;  this  is  simply  a  popular  error  that  requires 
refutation.  On  the  other  hand,  some  people  will  per- 
sist in  sitting  on  that  part  of  their  back  which  is  still, 
perhaps,  called  back,  instead  of  on  that  portion  of  it 
which  is  honored  w^ith  a  supplemental  designation. 
What  is  a  man  to  sit  on?  Well,  he  has  two  bones 
in  his  seat,  which  we  venture,  in  imitation  of  German 
phraseology,  to  call  his  "sitting-bones,"  and  a  third  in 
rear — that  on  which  umquhile  Lord  Monboddo  built 
his  celebrated  theory,  since  improved  on  by  Danvin,  of 
the  human  race,  having  been  originally  developed  from 
monkeys ;  this  third  bone  completes,  with  the  other 
two,  a  triangular  basis  for  the  human  seat  on  horse- 
back, and,  be  it  said,  a  much  more  efficient  one  than 
for  the  theory  in  question.*     If  the  angle  of  the  hip- 

*  It  has  escaped  the  observation  of  the  Darwinians  that  monkeys 
on  horseback  never  sit  on  their  tails,  which,  of  course,  upsets  their 
whole  theory. 


Seats.  79 

bone  comes  to  be  perpendicular  over  the  sitting-bone 
at  the  same  side,  the  rider's  weight  will  rest  on  this 
triangular  basis,  which,  being  the  largest  available 
for  the  purpose,  affords  the  greatest  degree  of  stability 
to  the  seat.  If,  however,  the  perpendicular  from  the 
hip-bone  falls  to  the  reai'  of  the  sitting-bone,  the  leg 
and  thigh  are  immediately  thrown  forward  to  the  horse's 
shoulder,  the  rider's  back  is  converted  into  the  segment 
of  a  circle,  and  his  weight  sways  about  unsteadily  on 
the  Monboddo  corner  of  the  triangle.  Finally,  if  the 
aforesaid  perpendicular  fall  in  front  of  the  sitting-bone, 
the  fork-seat  is  achieved,  the  thighs  come  back  toward 
the  horse's  tail,  the  rider's  body  is  carried  forward  by 
every  movement  of  the  animal,  because  it  rests  only  on 
two  points  instead  of  three,  and  this  may  be  styled  the 
"  muff  school  of  equestrianism." 

Whatever  difference  of  opinion  may  exist  as  to  where 
the  rider  should  sit  in  his  saddle,  or  however  necessary 
it  may  be  to  vary  the  exact  position  of  the  seat  accord- 
ing to  the  object  in  view,  there  can  be  no  doubt  what- 
ever that  the  only  firm  and  steady  seat  is  on  the  tri- 
angle; the  Monboddo  bone  must  neither  be  over- 
weighted nor  made  too  conspicuous. 

The  seat,  therefore,  as  such,  depends  on  balance  or 
poise,  on  the  amount  of  surface  brought  into  contact 
with  the  saddle,  both  of  which  in  their  turn  depend  on 
whether  the  rider's  weight  rests  on  three,  two,  or  only 
one  corner  of  a  triangle,  and  all  this  is  necessarily  modi- 
fied by  the  position  of  the  stirrup.  We  have  endeav- 
ored to  show  the  relative  value  of  each  element  in 
succession,  and  now  leave  the  reader  to  make  such  a 
combination  of  them  as  best  suits  his  purpose,  remind- 
ing him  merely  that  although  he  may  safely  modify  first 
principles,  he  never  can  totally  despise  them  without 
committing  an  absurdity. 

A  question  presents  itself  here  which,  although  ap- 


8o  Scats  and  Saddles. 

pertaining  more  properly  to  the  department  of  practical 
instruction,  is  so  intimately  connected  with  the  matters 
we  have  just  now  been  discussing,  that  it  is  impossible 
to  pass  it  over  without  a  few  words  ;  it  is  this  :  Should 
we  give  our  first  instruction  in  riding  with  or  without 
stirrups?  The  advocates  of  beginning  without  stirrups 
say  you  must  first  give  the  pupil  a  seat,  and  then,  when 
he  has  acquired  balance  and  a  hold  of  his  horse,  you 
can  give  him  the  additional  assistance  of  the  stirrups. 
Now  the  most  difficult  thing  to  attain  is  balance,  and 
the  stirrup  was  devised  for  the  purpose  of  assisting  in 
acquiring  and  maintaining  it;  and  it  is,  therefore,  just 
as  reasonable  to  act  in  this  manner  as  it  would  be  to  set 
a  boy  to  learn  swimming  without  corks  or  bladders,  and 
when  he  had  learned  to  support  himself  in  the  water 
give  him  these  artificial  aids  ;  and  this  is  seldom  thought 
rational.  But  there  is  another  objection — namely,  that 
the  pupil  first  acquires  one  seat,  and  afterward  is  ex- 
pected to  change  it  for  another  and  better  one.  Why 
not  begin  at  first  with  this  ?  Every  practical  cavalry 
officer  knows  that  it  is  much  easier  to  teach  a  man  that 
has  never  been  on  horseback  than  one  who  has  ac- 
quired methods  of  his  own,  which  give  the  instructor 
the  double  work  of  unteaching  and  teaching.  Of  course 
if  the  people  ride  at  home  nearly  in  the  same  way  and 
in  the  same  kind  of  saddle  that  they  are  required  to  do 
in  the  ranks — as,  for  instance,  the  Hungarians,  Cossacks 
and  others — this  does  not  apply ;  but  with  all  Western 
nations  of  Europe  it  does.  It  is  highly  probable  that 
the  English  system  of  hanging  the  stirrups  far  forward 
in  the  saddle  has  been  adopted,  partially  at  least,  for  the 
purpose  of  adapting  these  instruments  to  a  seat  acquired 
iviihout  them — that  is  to  say,  to  a  purpose  they  were 
not  intended  for.  Long  experience  in  training  recruits 
has  resulted  in  the  conviction  that  it  is  xnuch  better,  and 
in  the  end  more  expeditious,  to  giv^  the  young  rider 


Seats.  8 1 

stirrups  from  the  beginning  ;  and  when  he  has  acquired 
a  certain  amount  of  confidence  and  balance  you  may 
take  away  the  stirrups  to  perfect  the  latter,  without 
running  the  least  risk  of  destro3'ing  the  former. 

To  return  from  this  digression,  and  at  the  same  time 
bring  our  investigation  of  the  general  conditions  on 
which  a  safe  seat  depends  to  a  conclusion,  let  us  recall 
to  mind  the  final  result  of  Chapter  II.  as  it  affects  the 
seat.  Whatever  the  form  of  this  may  be  in  a  state  of 
rest,  from  the  moment  action  ensues  the  lever  power 
transmitted  through  the  hind  and  fore  legs  respectively 
will  constantly  tend  to  disturb  the  rider's  seat  nioj'e  or 
less  everywhere,  but  least  of  all  when  this  is  exactly 
over  the  perpendicular  line  passing  through  the  centre 
of  motion  (the  line  E  /%  fig.  4),  whereas  it  will  be 
most  felt  by  the  rider  the  more  his  seat  is  placed  away 
from  this  line,  especially  in  rear  of  it. 

Here  are  two  scraps  of  newspaper  correspondence : 
"  He  never  seemed  to  move  in  his  saddle  from  the  start- 
ing-post till  he  had  won  the  race  ;"  and  again — "  They 
still  ride  as  if  they  formed  part  and  parcel  of  their 
horses:   it  is  the  old  Centaur-like  form." 

English  gentlemen  like  to  ride  with  ease,  and  will 
have  probably  no  objection  to  grace.  The  former  pre- 
cludes the  idea  of  all  visible  muscular  exertion,  and 
presupposes  a  feeling  of  security  ;  the  latter  is  equally 
incompatible  with  slovenliness,  affectation  or  stiffness; 
moreover,  steadiness  of  the  hand  depends  on  solidity  of 
the  seat,  and  this,  as  we  have  seen,  depends  to  a  great 
extent  on  the  not  being  exposed  to  conflicting  move- 
ments derived  from  the  horse. 

The  fockefs  Saddle  a?id  Seat. — English  jockey- 
riding  is  universally  acknowledged  to  be  perfection  ;  it 
is,  in  fact,  a  specialty  in  which  the  English  character 
is  strongly  reflected  ;  for  although  its  mere  mechanism 

F 


82  Scats  and  Saddles. 

may  be  easily  imitated,  the  cool  judgment,  energy,  pa- 
tience and  promptitude  that  really  constitute  a  good 
race-rider  are  natural  gifts.  What  interests  us  more 
especially  is,  that  this  style  of  riding  is  in  perfect  accord- 
ance with  the  principles  we  have  been  advocating :  the 
saddle  is  placed  just  over  the  fourteenth  vertebra,  it  is 
of  such  small  dimensions  that  the  rider  can  only  sit  on 
one  spot,*  and  under  this,  or  very  nearly  so,  the  girths 
are  attached  and  the  stirrups  suspended  ;  nay,  still  far- 
ther, a  surcingle  passing  over  the  exact  centre  of  the 
saddle  is  generally  employed.  The  length  of  the  stir- 
rups should,  according  to  the  best  authorities,  be  such 
as  just  to  enable  the  jock  to  clear  his  saddle  when  he 
stands  in  them,  but  never  so  long  as  to  make  him  de- 
fend on  the  reins  in  the  least  for  his  upright  position; 
therefore,  when  he  does  stand  in  the  stirrups,  he  trans- 
fers, through  them,  his  weight  to  the  centre  of  the  sad- 
dle, without,  of  course,  disturbing  the  general  equilib- 
rium of  his  horse.  When  he  wishes  to  bring  the  centre 
of  gravity  more  forward — which  favors,  as  we  have 
shown,  the  propelling  action  of  the  hind  legs — he  does 
this  by  bending  his  own  body  forward  froTn  the  hips 
upward.,  and  throwing  forward  his  head,  his  legs  re- 
maining straight  down  close  to  his  horse  ;  and  this  bend 
is  altogether  different  from  that  of  the  rider  who  sits  far 
back  in  his  saddle,  with  his  knees  drawn  up  to  the 
horse's  shoulder.  When  it  comes  to  the  finish,  the  jock 
sits  down  to  "  ride  "  his  horse,  just  as  a  cavalry  soldier 
should^  the  great  difference  being  that  the  latter  has  but 
one  hand  to  ride  with.  Much  of  the  success  of  starting 
depends  on  the  rider  throwing  his  weight  forward  at 
the  proper  moment,  and  not  overdoing  it,  as  good  riders 
well  know.  The  bridle  is  a  much  greater  difficulty  with 
the  race-horse  than  the  saddle,  but  this  we  must  reserve 
for  the  second  part  of  our  book. 

*  Hibernicc,  the  racing  saddle  may  be  described  as  having  only  a 
middle,  and  d — 1  an  end  at  alL 


Scats.  83 

T/je  Hunting  Seat. — This  is  a  difficult  subject,  and 
one  that  cannot  be  treated  dogmatically  Hunting  is 
ivell  done  in  a  great  variety  of  forms,  and  then  money 
is,  to  most  hunting  men,  a  matter  of  secondary  import- 
ance. The  great  majority  only  require  their  horses  "  to 
go;''^  when  they  are  done  up  they  can  buy  others,  and 
so  on.  Race-riders  mount  for  other  people's  pleasure, 
and  large  sums  of  money  are  at  stake  :  hence  the  severe 
discipline  and  the  carefully-considered  system  of  riding. 
The  preservation  of  the  horse,  too,  is  a  great  considera- 
tion: the  hunting  man  rides  for  his  own  pleasure,  and 
is  only  answerable  to  himself  for  his  expenditure  of 
horse-flesh. 

The  author  of  the  "Handy  Horse-Book,"  remarking 
at  p.  99  on  the  great  difl^erence  in  speed  between  Eng- 
lish and  Irish  fox-hunting,  says  "  that  the  sound  princi- 
ples of  hunting  are  repeatedly  sacrificed  to  the  unnatural 
speed  to  which  hounds  are  now  forced."  There  are, 
no  doubt,  many  good  reasons  to  account  for  this.  Most 
men  care  more  for  ''the  spin"  than  for  the  hunting 
itself,  which  aflbrds  merely  a  pretext.  Perhaps,  too, 
English  hunting  is  less  a  pursuit  of  the  fox  than  a  des- 
perate endeavor  to  distance  Thackeray's  all-pervading 
snob,  which  seems,  however,  not  always  to  succeed  ;  for, 
as  "  Magenta  "  says,  in  the  paragraph  of  his  book  quoted 
above,  "  the  hounds  are  so  forced  as  to  overrun  the 
scent ;  then,  when  at  fault,  the  entire  ruck  of  the  field 
have  an  opportunity  of  coming  up,"  etc.,  etc. 

But  what  we  have  to  do  with  is  the  seat,  and  not  the 
hunting  itself,  which  has  been  alluded  to  merely  be- 
cause the  pace  has  evidently  a  good  deal  to  do  with  the 
form  of  the  seat.  For,  in  fact,  men  of  fifty  years  old 
and  thereabout  can  scarcely  fail  to  remember  that  the 
length  of  our  saddles  has  been  increasing  constantly 
with  the  rapidity  of  the  pace  ;  and  although  an  increase 
of  the  bearing  surface  of  the  saddle,  as  has  been  already 


§4  Seals  and  Saddles. 

shown,  is  an  admirable  thing  in  itself,  no  great  advan- 
tage is  derived,  so  far  as  the  horse's  back  is  concerned, 
unless  the  rider  be  placed  in  the  centre  of  the  saddle. 
But  our  saddles  have  been  lengthened  chiefly  for  the 
purpose  of  enabling  us  to  get  farther  away  from  the 
stirrup,  so  as  to  use  this  as  a  point  of  support,  not 
against  falling  to  the  right  or  left,  but  to  prevent  one's 
being  pulled  right  over  the  horse's  head  in  fast  gallop- 
ing or  jumping ;  and  thus  many  riders  vsdiose  object 
really  is  to  throw  their  weight  somew^hat  forward,  be- 
cause this  favors  speed,  actually  come  to  sit  almost  on 
the  loins  of  their  horses,  where  they  seriously  impede 
the  action  of  the  propellers,  and  are  then  compelled  to 
throw  their  body  forward  in  the  most  inconvenient  and 
unsightly  manner.*  No  doubt  if  this  system  were  not 
found  to  answer  the  purpose  more  or  less,  it  would 
scarcely  be  persevered  in.  When,  however,  we  find 
some  of  the  best  authorities  recommending,  and  many 
of  the  best  living  riders  practicing,  something  very 
different,  one  begins  not  only  to  doubt  its  being  even 
relatively  good,  but  also  to  1-ook  with  a  more  critical 
eve  to  its  positive  disadvantages.  They  are  these  :  It 
involves  unnecessary  w^ear  and  tear  of  the  horse's  fore 
legs,  because  the  rider's  weight  is  with  every  bound 
thrown  forward  into  his  stirrups  in  the  direction  ^  P^ 
fig.  4 — that  is  to  say,  exactly  counter  to  the  direction  in 
which  the  arm-bone  ends  its  action  ;  whereas,  by  sit- 
ting over  the  centre  of  motion,  the  shock  is  equally 
divided  over  all  four  legs,  and  not  on  one  pair  alone. 
This  is  what  we  meant  by  saying  that  a  man  may  sit 
far  back  and  still  ruin  his  horse's  fore  legs.  Secondly, 
it  is  not  the  safest  method,  because,  if  the  horse  fails  wath 

*  Sir  F.  Head  says,  in  "  The  Horse  and  his  Rider,"  p.  33  :  "  The 
generality  of  riders  are  but  too  apt  to  sit  on  their  horses  in  the  bent 
attitude  of  the  last  paroxysm  or  exertion  which  helped  them  into  the 
saddle,  called  by  Sir  Bellingham  Graham  a  Tvash-ball  seat.''^ 


Seats.  85 

one  or  both  fore  legs,  the  rider  loses  all  his  support  at 
once,  the  stirrup  acting  only  as  a  pivot  round  which, 
by  means  of  his  stitY  leg,  his  whole  body  is  made,  by 
the  impulse  received  from  the  hind  legs,  to  rotate  and 
perform  the  catapult  experiment.  And  if  a  horse  sud- 
denly swerves,  turns  on  his  haunches,  or  comes  to  a 
dead  halt  at  a  jump,  the  rider  is  most  likely,  through 
the  same  agency,  to  continue  the  original  line  of  move- 
ment, while  the  horse  adopts  a  new  one,  or  "  reposes." 
Thirdly,  this  method  of  riding  tends  very  forcibly  to 
making  the  horse  convert  the  rider's  hand  into  a  fifth 
leg  for  itself,  the  pull  of  the  head  on  the  rein  coming  at 
an  acute  angle  to  the  push  or  tread  of  the  leg  in  the 
stirrup  ;  and  this,  when  carried  to  excess,  degenerates 
into  pure  rein-and-stir7'up  riding  vjitJiout  any  seat^ 
especially  with  horses  that  carry  their  heads  low.  It 
is,  however,  just  precisely  with  a  hard-pulling  horse 
that  a  curbed  bit  would  be  so  desirable,  and  'with  this 
scat  it  is  a  matter  of  impossibility  to  use  one.  The  rule 
for  the  jockey  we  have  seen  is,  never,  in  standing  in 
his  stirrups,  to  depend  for  seat  to  any  extent  on  his  reins. 
Why  this  should  be  neglected  in  hunting  is  not  easy  to 
understand.  The  Cossacks  and  Circassians,  who  all 
ride  with  a  snaffle,  and  do  wonderful  things  with  it,  sit 
perfectly  independent  of  the  rein  ;  any  one  can  make 
his  horse  equally  light  in  the  hand  with  a  snaffle  as 
theirs  are,  by  making  his  seat  as  independent  of  the 
reins  and  stirrups,  or  use  a  curbed  bit  in  hunting  if  he 
pleases.  It  is  the  close,  steady  seat  that  makes  the 
hand  light  and  the  horse's  mouth  soft ;  and  therefore  it 
is  much  more  valuable  in  teaching  to  make  the  young 
riders  dispense  altogether  zuith  the  rei?is  than  zvith  the 
stirrups^  and  may  be  done  sooner. 

Apropos  of  rising  in  the  stirrups — "  either  to  a^■oid  a 
kick,  or  in  jumping  a  large  fence,  the  rider,  by  merely 
rising  in  his  stirrups,  at  once  raises  or  abstracts  from 


86  Seats  and  Saddles. 

the  saddle  the  point  his  enemy  intends  to  attack,  and 
accordingly  the  blow  aimed  at  it  fails  to  reach  it."  *  On 
the  contrary,  Mr.  Apperley  says,  "When  hounds  find 
and  go  away,  place  yourself  ivell  dow7i  in  your  saddle, 
on  your  fork  or  twist,  and  don't  be  standing  up  in  your 
stirrups  (as  formerly  was  the  fashion,  and  the  cause  of 
many  a  dislocated  neck)^  sticking  out  your  rump  as  if 
it  did  not  belong  to  you."  Who  shall  decide  when  such 
high  authorities  difler?  But  perhaps  the  difference  is 
more  specious  than  real.  Mr.  Apperley  says,  well  down 
in  your  saddle,  which,  we  take  it,  will  bring  a  man  very 
near  to  the  middle  of  that  piece  of  furniture,  and  prob- 
ably to  the  horse's  centre  of  motion.  Here  the  neces- 
sity for  avoidi72g  the  blow  does  not  arise,  it  is  the  point 
of  least  motion  ;  but  if  a  man  sits  well  back  in  his 
saddle,  a  la  wash-ball,  he  gets  much  nearer  to  the  action 
of  the  hind  legs,  and  nothing  else  remains  for  him  than 
a  speedy  retreat  wlien  this  becomes  dangerous.  Some- 
thing like  this  must  be  the  key  to  this  difference  of 
opinion  ;  for  a  rifle  or  other  gun  that  kicks  will  only 
hit  your  shoulder  the  harder  the  looser  you  hold  it,  and 
perhaps  knock  you  down  if  you  hold  it  quite  clear,  or 
at  least  knock  the  wind  out  of  you.  If  a  man  sits  in 
the  right  place,  he  does  not  need  to  rise  in  his  stirrups 
for  aiiy  such  purpose;  and  if  he  does  not,  the  rising 
in  the  stirrups,  and  thereby  abandoning  his  whole  seat, 
may  or  may  not  lielp  him. 

Perhaps  we  should  never  have  attempted  writing  a 
single  line  about  the  hunting  seat  but  for  one  consider- 
ation— it  is  this :  The  majority  of  our  cavalry,  yeo- 
manry and  mounted  volunteers  are  hunting  men,  and  if 
there  really  were  such  an  enormous  difference  between 
a  good  cavalry  and  a  good  hunting  seat,  as  many  people 
seem  to  suppose,  it  would  be  simply  a  very  hopeless 
case.  But  is  there  this  great  difference  }  Mr.  Apperlej 
*  Sir  F.  Head,  as  above. 


Seats.  87 

says,  "  Be  assured  that  the  military  seat  with  very  long 
stirrups  will  not  do  here,  however  graceful  it  may  ap- 
pear on  a  parade."  Fortunately  this  great  authority 
gives  us  in  his  own  book  a  drawing  intended  to  repre- 
sent this  graceful  seat,  which  (see  Plate  V),  on  closer 
inspection,  turns  out  to  be  Harry  Lorrequer's  "  tongs 
across  a  wall."  Well,  no  doubt,  this  won't  do  for  hunt- 
ing, nor  indeed,  as  far  as  we  can  see,  for  any  other  good 
purpose  beyond  exhibiting  the  high  polish  of  a  man's 
boots,  spurs  and  stirrup-irons — the  rider  being  in  uni- 
form, scarcely  making  his  seat  a  good  military  one  ;  but 
of  this  more  anon.  Mr.  Apperley  has,  however,  given 
us  two  other  figures  representing  his  notions  of  good 
and  bad  hunting  seats,  which  are  here  presented  to  the 
reader. 

On  the  other  hand,  there  can  be  no  doubt  of  the  total 
inapplicability  of  the  wash-ball  seat  to  military  pur- 
poses ;  and,  after  all,  one  comes  to  the  conclusion  that 
the  essential  difference  between  any  two  good  forms  of 
seat  is  not  so  enormous  as  is  commonly  represented.  If 
a  man  "  sits  on  horse  ape-like,"  as  the  Hungarian  phrase 
is,  he  will  scarcely  succeed  in  any  kind  of  riding;  and 
we  believe  that  the  great  secret  of  good  horsemanship  in 
general  consists  in  avoiding  exaggerations  of  all  kinds. 
The  saddle,  the  position  of  the  stirrup,  and  the  peculiar 
object  in  view,  may  and  must  induce  modifications  of 
the  seat ;  but  riding  is  still  riding,  and  the  mechanism 
of  the  horse's  construction  cannot  be  altered  by  mere 
fashion. 

Road-Ridij?g. — The  road-rider,  although  not  re- 
quired to  take  fences,  or  permitted  to  ride  at  full  gallop 
like  the  fox-hunter,  has  his  own  difficulties  to  contend 
with  :  he  has  to  do  his  work  on  a  hard,  inelastic  surface, 
and  not  on  grass  fields  or  ploughed  land  ;  he  must  be 
prepared  to  make  sharp  turns,  and  to  meet  all  sorts  of 


S8  Sca/s  and  Saddles, 

provocations  to  shying  and  restiveness,  of  which  the 
hunting  man  knows  little  or  nothing;  in  fact,  handi- 
ness,  safety  for  himself  and  a  due  regard  for  his  horse's 
legs  are  much  more  important  considerations  for  him 
than  great  speed.  It  is  all  very  well  to  say  that  a  road- 
ster or  hack  should  possess  the  qualities  requisite  to 
ensure  the  above,  but  all  does  not  depend  upon  the 
horse  ;  if  the  seat  of  the  rider  be  faulty,  a  break-down 
will  ensue  sooner  or  later. 

Let  us  take  the  hard  road,  in  the  first  instance,  into 
consideration.  When  one  body  strikes,  falls  or  impinges 
on  another,  to  use  a  scientific  phrase,  it  receives  the 
blow  back  sooner  or  later.  This  is,  as  we  all  know, 
what  is  called  recoil  or  rebound  ;  the  elastic  surface 
gives  back  the  blow  later  and  more  gradually ;  the 
inelastic  one  sooner  and  more  suddenly.  The  horse's 
leg  being  elastic,  itself  receives  but  a  small  shock  from 
the  elastic  turf,  this  being  divided  between  both  nearly 
equally  ;  on  the  hard  road  nearly  the  whole  recoil  is 
transmitted  back  to  the  horse's  body  through  its  limbs, 
and  this  is  nearly  equal  to  tlie  weight  of  both  rider  and 
bearer.  There  are  various  means  by  which  this  recoil 
may  be  diminished  in  intensity,  to  the  great  ease  of  the 
horse.  One  of  the  most  obvious  is  to  distribute  the 
weight  as  nearly  as  possible  over  the  middle  of  the 
horse's  back,  which  is  constructed,  as  we  have  shown, 
in  such  a  manner  as  to  admit  of  a  certain  amount  of 
elastic  action  in  a  vertical  direction — in  plain  words,  up 
and  down.  Two  men  can  carry  a  greater  weight  with 
an  elastic  pole  on  their  shoulders  than  with  a  stiff  one  ; 
and  if  the  burden  be  not  exactl}'  in  the  centre  of  it,  the 
man  to  whom  it  is  nearest  will  get  more  of  the  recoil 
from  the  si'ound  than  the  other  one.  Now,  taking:  into 
account  that  the  road-rider  does  not  want  great  speed, 
and  has  at  the  same  time  an  inelastic  surface  to  deal 
with,  there    can,  we    think,  be    little    doubt    that,    by 


Scats.  89 

placing  his  saddle  and  himself  over  the  middle  of  the 
horse's  back,  he  will  save  his  bearer  and  himself  a  large 
amo'int  of  recoil.  If,  however,  in  this  position  he 
thrustij  his  whole  foot  into  the  stirrups,  he  thereby 
throws  away  a  further  chance  ;  for,  by  merely  resting 
with  the  ball  of  his  foot  on  the  bar  of  the  stirrup,  his 
knee  being  slightly  bent,  he  superadds  the  elastic  action 
of  his  own  legs  at  knee  and  ankle  to  that  of  the  horse's, 
and  this  is  the  legitimate  and  useful  form  of  "  i>obbi?ig 
up  a?zd  douon.'^ 

A  wholly  useless  and  absurd  method  of  performing 
this  feat  is  when  the  stirrup  is  ever  so  far  away  from 
the  part  of  the  saddle  on  which  the  rider  sits,  for  then 
there  is  an  end  of  the  elastic  action  of  the  rider's  leg ; 
and,  unfortunately,  there  are  some  cavalry  services  in 
which  this  is  practiced,  to  the  great  increase  of  rup- 
tures amongst  the  men,  and  broken  knees  amongst  the 
horses. 

The  plan  adopted  in  England  is  to  avoid  the  recoil 
by  rising  in  the  stirrups,  which,  of  course,  is  the  most 
sensible  wa}^  for  a  man  who  has  to  ride  long  distances 
and  is  not  encumbered  with  weapons.  It  has,  however, 
its  inconveniences,  especially  if  the  stirrup  is  placed 
very  far  forward  ;  for  then,  in  the  first  place,  the  foot 
being  thrust  home  in  the  stirrup,  the  elasticity  of  the 
rider's  leg  is  not  utilized  ;  and  even  when  this  is  not  the 
case,  the  "  tread,"  being  oblique,  cannot  have  the  efiect 
intended  ;  secondly,  the  whole  seat  is  abandoned  for  a 
certain  time,  nothing  remaining  in  contact  with  the 
horse  except  the  leg  from  the  knee  downward,  which  is 
of  little  use  ;  thirdly,  the  horse  learns  to  lean  on  the 
hand,  for  the  rider  must  depend  on  his  reins,  for  a 
moment  of  time  at  least,  which,  of  course,  renders  cor- 
rect bitting  impossible  ;*  finally,  the  rider's  weight  is 

*  Ladies  have,  in  general,  a  much  lighter  hand  than  men,  their  seat 
is  firmer  and  clo:>er,  and  their  horses  are  usually  properly  bitted. 
8* 


90  Seats  and  Saddles. 

being  constantly  transferred  from  the  hind  to  the  fore 
quarters  of  the  horse.  There  may  be  average  equi'ib- 
rium,  but  it  is  never  per7nane7itly  in  the  right  pace, 
and  hence  the  danger ;  for  a  sudden  start  or  stunible  at 
the  moment  the  rider  is  in  the  air  is  the  most  common 
cause  of  the  accidents  that  occur  so  frequently. 

Now,  in  truth,  there  is  no  reason  why  this  English 
system  of  rising  in  the  stirrups  (in  trotting)  should  not 
be  practiced  equally  well,  not  to  say  better,  with  the 
stirrup  near  the  middle  of  the  saddle  instead  of  at  one 
end.  The  difference  is  this,  that  a  much  less  amount 
of  rise  will  suffice,  and  the  seat  is,  therefore,  not  only 
less  completely  abandoned,  but  also  for  a  shorter  time  ; 
the  horse's  balance  is  not  destroyed  ;  and  fine  bitting 
may  be  resorted  to.*  There  is,  however,  a  farther  pecu- 
liarity belonging  to  this  English  method  that  is  worth 
understanding,  because  the  successful  trotting  of  many 
horses  depends  on  its  being  so.  The  "  bobber  up  and 
iown  "  rises  and  falls  with  each  tread  of  the  horse  ; 
the  English  rider  only  ivzth  the  interi7iediate  ones:  he 
ilways  comes  down  on  his  saddle  simultaneously  with 
one  and  the  same  hind  leg :  and  the  consequence  is, 
that  in  trotting  after  this  fashion  one  diagonal  pair  of 
legs  is  constantly  saved  from  the  recoil,  and  the  other 
as  constantly  exposed  to  it  in  an  aggravated  form. 

Every  practical  rider  must  have  observed  that  with 
certain  horses  there  is  a  difficulty,  in  starting  to  trot,  in 
the  accommodation  of  the  rider's  rise  in  the  stirrups  to 
the  first  movements  :  he  will  have  to  feel  his  way,  as  it 
were,  to  the  proper  leg,  and  perhaps  be  obliged  to  sit 
out  two  or  three  shakes  before  he  can  get  at  it ;  for 
many  horses  trot  unequall)' — that  is,  take  a  longer  stride 
with  one  pair  of  legs  than  with  the  other.     The  rider 

*  The  author  has  done  many  a  mile  of  hard  work  in  this  way  in  a 
military  saddle  with  stirrups  exactly  central ;  and  ridden  to  English 
foxhounds  also  tolerably  well  in  full  military  fig  in  a  stiff  country. 


Seals.  91 

should  observe  this  in  difficult  cases,  and  try  to  find  out, 
which  he  soon  can,  with  which  hind  leg  he  should  rise 
or  fall :  men  who  have  this  instinct  are  able  to  ti-of- 
horses  that  perfectly  good  riders  fail  with. 

Lieutenant-Colonel  von  Oeynhausen  tells  us*  that  the 
veterinary  surgeon  Trager,  of  the  famous  stud  at  Tra- 
kehnen,  has  observed  that  the  near  hind  and  off  fore 
legs  of  most  horses  are  stronger  than  the  other  two  ; 
and  he  attributes  some  well-known  but  hitherto  seem- 
ingly inexplicable  facts  in  connection  with  horses  to 
this  circumstance — as,  for  instance,  that  they  naturally 
prefer,  in  cantering  and  galloping,  to  lead  with  the  near 
leg,  the  weight  being  then  supported  by  the  two  strong- 
est limbs  (near  hind,  off  fore)  ;  that  spavin  occurs  more 
frequently  on  the  off  than  the  near  side  ;  and  that  horses 
in  wheeling  about  through  restiveness  always  do  so  to 
the  left,  on  the  near  hind  leg,  etc.  Mr.  Trager  advances 
in  support  of  his  views  the  well-known  fact  that  men's 
right  arms  and  left  legs  are  naturally  most  relied  on, 
being  also  stronger ;  and  he  believes  this  to  be  the  case 
with  very  many  other  animals — dogs,  for  instance,  whose 
method  of  going  diagonally  seems  to  prove  it.  Now  it 
is  quite  possible  that  this  is  also  the  cause  of  what  has 
been  alluded  to  above — namely,  that  in  trotting  after 
the  English  fashion  the  horse  endeavors  to  accommo- 
date the  strong  and  weak  pairs  of  legs  to  the  rise  and 
fall  of  the  rider  in  the  saddle  ;  and  if  so,  it  is  worth  the 
attention  of  practical  men. 

It  is,  however,  quite  clear  that  if  we  desire  to  train 
horses  to  perfectly  equal  action  on  both  sides — as  is 
necessary  for  military  purposes,  where  all  must  be 
brought  as  nearly  as  possible  to  one  standard  of  action, 
or  for  draught,  where  the  team  should  trot  alike — it  will 

*  B.  von  Oeynhausen,  KK.  Oberst-lieutenant,  etc.;  "  Der  Pferde- 
liebhaber"  (Vienna,  1865),  at  p.  162 — a  book  that  cannot  be  too 
highly  recommended. 


92 


Seats  and  Saddles. 


be  better  to  employ  the  "  bobbing  up-and-down  system" 
than  English  riding;.  The  Americans  understand  and 
apply  this  in  the  training  of  their  great  trotters:  few 
English  horses  can  compete  with  them,  because  their 
trot  is  uneven.  But,  of  course,  there  is  no  use  in  at- 
tempting a  combination  of  "■wash-ball,"  or  "  tongs  across 
a  wall,"  with  "  bobbing ;"  it  will  never  succeed  in  any- 
thing but  shaking  the  rider's  lungs  out :  the  nearly  per- 
pendicular tread  on  the  stirrup,  with  an  elastic  ankle 
to  break  the  jolt,  is  imperative.  The  Orientals,  who 
use  shovel  stirrups,  and  stand  straight  on  the  entire  sole 
of  the  foot,  never  attempt  trotting — their  paces  are  walk 
or  gallop.  Arab  horses  have,  however,  a  tremendous 
trot  if  you  can  bring  them  to  it ;  but  you  must  sit  like 
wax,  and  have  the  delicate  hand  of  a  first-rate  pianist 
to  do  the  trick  ;  for  nothing  stronger  than  a  single  hair 
from  a  fair  lady's  head  is  fit  for  a  rein. 

There  exists  in  many  minds  a  strong  prejudice  on  tlie 
subject  of  its  easing  the  horse  to  tuck  up  the  rider's  legs, 
and  that  nothing  tires  it  so  much  as  a  long  dangling 
weight  unde?'  its  belly.  In  the  first  place,  it  comes  to 
this,  that  a  giant  should  not  mount  a  pony  ;  then,  again, 
why  dangle  the  legs?  They  have  a  better  chance  of 
lying  close  to  the  horse's  body  if  the  stirrup  be  placed 
nearly  under  the  seat,  which  does  not  involve  their 
being  too  long  ;  and  further,  how  if  the  rider's  body  be 
made  to  dangle  in  the  air  ove?'  the  horse's  back^  in  con- 
sequence of  the  attempt  to  tuck  up  the  legs?  This  is 
still  more  dangerous:  one  sees  everyday  horses  reeling 
in  trot  under  riders  that  adopt  the  very  "  lofty  "  English 
style  ;  the  centre  of  gravity  gets  a  couple  of  feet  farther 
away  from  the  basis,  which  is  just  equivalent  to  the 
latter  being  decreased  proportionately.  Every  one 
knows  that  a  man  with  a  long  back  and  short  legs  rides 
heavier  than  a  long-legged  one. 

It  is  scarcely  necessary,  after  what  has  been  already 


Scats.  93 

said,  to  demonstrate  over  again  how  conducive  to  handi- 
ness,  perfect  mastery  over  the  horse,  independence  of 
the  rein,  and  therefore  good  bitting,  a  central  position  of 
the  saddle,  stirrups  and  seat  must  be  ;  and  these  are,  w^e 
take  it,  the  conditions  under  which  road-riding  may 
be  done  safely  and  agreeably.  High  speed  not  being 
the  object,  nothing  can  be  gained  by  throwing  the  rider's 
weight  forward  ;  on  the  contrary,  it  has  this  further  posi- 
tive disadvantage  in  addition  to  those  already  pointed 
out.  Corns  with  our  horses  are  as  equally  prevalent  as 
broken  knees,  and  the  latter  are  very  frequently  a  con- 
sequence of  the  former.  Now  we  have  shown  (see  fig. 
2,  C)  that  the  consequence  of  throwing  the  weight  for- 
ward is  to  make  the  horse  overstep  with  its  hind  foot 
the  track  of  the  corresponding  fore  foot ;  and  this  being 
very  much  our  habit,  our  horses  do  very  frequently 
overstep,  and  by  so  doing  the  risk  is  run  of  tearing  off 
the  fore  shoes.  We  have  got  into  the  habit  of  using 
very  short  shoes,  the  web  of  which  does  not  overlap 
sufficient,  at  the  heel  the  angle  formed  by  tlie  frog  with 
the  wall  of  the  hoof,  but  falling  short,  throws  the  wliole 
pressure  inside  this  angle.  This  is  what  produces 
corns.  For  racing,  certainly,  and  perhaps  for  hunting, 
the  short  shoe  may  be  inevitable,  but  there  is  no  reason 
whatever  why  the  roadster  should  be  shod  in  this  fash- 
ion, nor  even  a  cavalry  horse,  except  that  people  will 
persist  in  either  sitting  directly  on  the  horse's  withers, 
or,  when  they  sit  on  the  loins,  transferring  their  weight 
to  the  shoulder,  through  the  medium  of  stirrups  hung 
far  forward,  every  time  they  rise  in  the  saddle  when 
trotting.  Corns  and  broken  knees  are  totally  unknown 
in  the  Austrian  cavalry,  where  the  shoe  is  given  a  solid 
bearing  on  the  angle  of  the  ivall  of  the  hoof  at  the  heel. 


CHAPTER    IV. 

THE    MILITARY    SEAT. 

IS  there  such  a  thing  as  a  standard  military  seat  or 
not?  and  is  there  any  real  necessity  for  it,  and  what? 
There  can  be  no  doubt  that  a  cavalry  in  some  respects 
technically  inferior  may  achieve,  and  often  has  gained, 
victories  over  another,  not  having  any  fault  of  the  kind. 
So  very  much  depends  on  the  way  in  which  this  arm  is 
handled  and  on  its  moral  qualities  that  it  is  quite  im- 
possible to  say,  "  This  cavalry,  because  it  rides  very 
well,  must,  or  even  w  ill  most  probably,  beat  that  other 
one,  because  it  does  not  ride  quite  so  well."  Are  we 
then  to  conclude  that  the  seat  and  everything  connected 
with  it  is  a  matter  of  minor  importance?  The  old  Aus- 
trian cavalry  regulations  contained  a  paragraph  to  this 
effect :  ''  Cavalry  that  cannot  ride  (that  is  to  say,  well) 
is  a  burden  to  the  State;"  but  we  have  been  often 
tempted  to  paraphrase  this  and  say,  "  Cavalry  that  can 
only  ride  is  not  less  so."  Both  expressions  taken  to- 
gether will  then  mean,  that  it  is  not  enough  for  a  cav- 
alry man  to  be  a  bold  rider ;  his  riding  must  be  done 
so  as  to  make  him  an  efficient  combatant  as  well :  for 
whatever  doubt  may  exist  on  account  of  the  almost  im- 
possibility of  estimating  precisely  "  the  other  things 
equal"  of  the  question  to  be  solved,  as  to  whether  a 
cavalry  that  rides  positively  w^ell  may  or  may  not  prove 
94 


The  Militajy  Scat,  95 

superior  in  combat  to  one  that  rides  only  comparatively 
so,  this  much  is  quite  certain^  that  the  former  will 
briiig  into  and  retain  in  the  field  a  niuch  greater  pro- 
portio7z  of  serviceable  horses  than  the  latter,  which  is 
in  itself  an  element  of  success  that  may  be  indeed  squan- 
dered away  like  all  others,  but  ?nust^  if  properly  taken 
advantage  of,  confer  great  superiority.  In  fact,  what 
we  would  say  to  every  cavalry  officer  of  whatever  na- 
tion is  this :  Your  cavalry  is  very  fine  ;  it  has  done 
wonders,  and  beat  all  other  cavalries  in  the  world  ; 
but  it  would  do  still  greater  miracles,  and  beat  all 
the  rest  if  you  only  improved  your  seat,  etc.,  a  little 
more  ;  beside  which  it  would  cost  less — a  matter  of 
some  importance — and  perhaps  look  quite  as  well  as 
at  present. 

No  one,  we  suppose,  will  contend  that  the  jockey 
style  of  riding  can  serve  as  a  model  for  the  cavalry 
soldier ;  the  kind  of  work  to  be  done  and  its  duration 
are  totally  different.  Perhaps  the  hunting  seat  deser/es 
more  consideration.  This  much  is  certain  :  it  iS  of 
great  advantage  to  cavalry  to  be  able  to  get  a-wi03S  a 
difficult  country,  and  much  of  its  utility  will  depend  on 
its  being  able  to  do  this  cleverly  and  in  an  ordei)/  man- 
ner. This  has  been  recognized  and  acted  on  of  late 
years  to  a  much  greater  extent  than  formerjy,  and,  as 
we  think,  very  wisely  too.  Up  to  a  certain  time  the 
haute  ecole  dominated  cavalry  riding  exclusively,  and, 
no  doubt,  very  reasonably,  in  the  then  existing  semi- 
cultivated  state  of  Europe,  and  under  the  conditions  of 
combat  then  prevalent.  But  both  of  these  have  vnider- 
gone  great  modifications  ;  and  first  of  all,  what  the 
Germans  call  the  "  campaign  school"  was  introduced 
for  cavalry  purposes ;  and  more  recently  still,  that 
very  indefinite  form  called  the  hunting  seat,  or  rather 
what  is  supposed  to  represent  it,  has  been  making  con 
siderable  inroads  into  the  domains  of  the  riding-ma? 


96  Scats  and  Saddles. 

ter.*  All  we  propose  saying  for  the  present  is,  that  the 
wash-ball  seat  is  evidently  not  the  proper  thing  for  mili- 
tary purposes,  while,  perhaps,  "  tongs  across  a  wall"  may 
be,  in  reality,  nothing  more  or  less  than  the  progeny  of 
a  liaison  with  that  respectable  old  lady  the  haute  ecole 
— in  fact,  a  mule  seat. 

Let  us  pass  in  review  the  points  of  resemblance  and 
of  difierence  between  the  two  kinds  of  riding.  The 
former  are  but  few  in  number,  the  latter  very  numer- 
ous. The  hunting  man  rides  his  own  horse  for  his  own 
pleasure,  and  does  not  mind  spoiling  a  steed  or  two  for 
the  sake  of  maintaining  his  character  as  a  forward  rider. 
Cavalry  soldiers  must  ride  together  almost  always ; 
what  regulates  their  speed  is  the  average  of  a  whole 
regiment,  and  not  the  swiftness  of  a  single  animal. 
The  Oriental  national  cavalries  won't  understand  this, 
and  get  beaten  by  riders  who,  taken  singly,  are  very 
inferior.  Again,  the  hunting  man's  proper  work  is  all 
done  at  full  gallop  ;  cavalry  does  at  least  five-eighths  of 
its  work  at  a  walk  (route  marching),  perhaps  two- 
eighths  in  trot  (manoeuvring),  and  certainly  not  more 
than  one-eighth  at  full  gallop  (in  charging).  The  con- 
clusions to  be  drawn  are,  that  even  supposing  the  so- 
called  "  hunting  seat"  to  be  the  best  for  high  speed,  no 
government  can  afford  the  waste  of  horse-flesh  it  in- 
volves, nor  would  there  be  the  slightest  use  in  doing  so. 
On  the  contrary,  this  style  of  riding  can  only  lead  to 
loose  and  broken  charges,  or  to  a  voluntary  abandon- 
ment of  full  gallop  in  charging.  Further,  the  fox-hunter 
does  not  require  sharp  turning,  and  he  has  both  his 
hands  at  his  disposal  ;  while  the  cavalry  soldier's  life 

*  The  father  of  a  young  cornet,  recently  gazetted,  told  the  author 
that  his  son  had  been  advised  by  a  brother  officer  to  conceal  the 
fact  of  his  being  a  "'cross-country"  rider  on  joining  his  regiment, 
as  otherwise  the  riding-master  would  keep  him  twice  as  long  under 
his  hands. 


The  Military  Scat.  97 

depends  to  a  great  extent  on  his  horse  being  able  to 
turn  suddenly  and  rapidly  with  the  aid  of  one  hand. 
The  folse  or  equilibrium  of  horse  and  rider  taken  to- 
gether  can  7tever  be  too  pe7-fect  or  too  permanent  In  his 
case.  One  of  the  great  mistakes  committed  is  the  sup- 
posing that  what  is  called  a  balance-seat  is  the  one 
thing  necessary.  The  whole  machine  must  be  in  bal- 
ance, and  not  the  rider  alone. 

But  the  greatest  difference  is  in  the  absolute  weight 
or  load  to  be  carried.  A  hunting  man  buys  a  horse 
up  to  his  weight ;  cavalry  can  do  nothing  of  the  sort, 
for  their  horses  are  compelled  to  carry  any  load  we 
please  to  inflict  on  them.  People  rig  out  a  soldier  with 
everything  that  combined  bad  taste  and  absurdity  can 
suggest — put  him  on  a  horse  that  must  not  cost  over  a 
certain  price,  and  call  him  a  hussar,  dragoon  or  lancer, 
according  to  the  cut  of  his  coat;  and  so  it  comes  that 
what  is  called  heavy  cavalry  sometimes  rides  lighter, 
and  is  altogether  lighter,  than  what  people  are  pleased 
to  consider  light  cavalry. 

There  must  be  some  average  weight  determinable  for 
the  average  horses  and  average  work  of  cavalry,  but  it 
is  very  hard  to  get  at  anything  like  a  satisfactory  solu- 
tion of  this  problem,  in  consequence  of  the  great  num- 
ber of  unknovv^n  quantities  involved  in  it.  Nevertheless, 
there  can  be  no  harm  done  in  attempting,  at  least,  a 
statement  of  the  question. 

French  authorities*  tell  us  that  a  ^<90fl?  sumpter-horse. 
Working  on  a  good  road,  can  carry  100  to  150  kilo- 
grammes (equal  to  15  stone  \  lb.,  or  23  stone  8f  lb.),  at 
a  walk,  to  a  distance  of  40  kilometres  (equal  about  24^-^^ 
English  miles)  in  ten  hours.  But  if  the  same  horse  be 
required  to  do  its  work  in  trot,  the  burden  must  be 
reduced  to  80  kilog.  (equal  176^  English  pounds),  in 

*  Migout  et  Borgery,  '*  Theorie  des  Affiits  et  des  Voitures  d'Artil- 
lerie." 


98  Scat:>  and  Saddles. 

order  to  enable  it  to  do  22^  to  2^^-^  English  miles  in  a 
day  (of  ten  hours).  If  the  burden  consists  of  a  rider 
with  its  saddle,  etc.,  instead  of  inert  matter  alone,  the 
horse  can  do  the  24^%  miles  at  a  ivalk^  on  2l  good  road, 
under  the  greater  load  of  90  kilog.  (198^  English 
pounds),  and  he  will  only  require  seven  to  eight  hours. 
It  is,  therefore,  evident  that  it  is  the  dead  weight  of  the 
pack  which  distresses  the  horse  most ;  and  our  own  ex- 
perience of  jockeys  carrying  extra  weight  confirms  this. 

Further,  a  man  carrying  a  weight  without  the  aid  of 
machinery,  can  transport  44  kilog.  (97  lb.  10  oz.  Eng- 
lish weight)  to  a  distance  of  12^  English  miles  for  a 
day's  work  ;  and  on  comparing  this  with  the  day's  work 
of  the  sumpter-horse,  we  find  that  the  former  is  to  the 
latter  in  the  proportion  of  i  to  5. 

Now  it  is  well  understood  that  a  foot-soldier,  who  has 
to  use  his  weapons,  cannot  carry  anything  like  this  97 
lb.  10  oz.  English  weight  without  converting  him  into 
a  mere  "  colporteur,"  the  utmost  admissible  load  being 
22  kilog.  (48  lb.  13  oz.),  or  one-tht7'd  the  mayt's  own 
average  weight;'^  and  as  the  saddle-horse  can  carry  90 
kilog.  24^  miles  only  at  a  walk  and  on  a  good  road,  if 
we  take  into  consideration  that  some  of  the  cavalry 
horse's  work  must  be  done  in  trot  and  gallop,  and  much 
of  it  on  more  or  less  difiicult  ground,  it  is  probable  that 
90  kilog.  (198*  English  pounds)  would  be  quite  suffi- 
cient load,  although  the  average  marches  should  not 
exceed  15  English  miles  per  diem,  because  the  irregular 
food  and  the  exposure  to  the  weather  in  bivouacs  more 
than  compensates  for  the  difference  of  distance. 

It  seems,  however,  to  be  the  practice  of  most  cavalry 

*  The  Continental  cavalries  take  145 i^  lb.,  or  10  st.  5^  lb.,  as  the 
average  weight.  The  British  soldier  must  be  much  heavier  than  this, 
probably  \\\X.o  12  st.  The  British  infantry  soldier's  kit  at  present 
weighs  exactly  11.67  kilog.,  leaving  10.33  l^i'og-*  or  about  23  lb.,  for 
arms  and  ammunition. 


The  Military  Scat.  99 

services  to  put  on  their  horses  at  least  a  third — in  many 
cases  even  more  than  that  proportion — of  the  animal's 
own  weight.  Strange  to  say,  we  must  go  to  the  man- 
uals of  the  artillery  and  pioneers  for  the  weight  of  the 
cavalry  soldier.  An  Austrian  authority,  Baron  Smola, 
calls  the  average  weight  of  the  horse  740  to  864  Eng- 
lish pounds  ;  and  it  has  always  been  laid  down  as  a  rule 
b}'  the  best  cavalry  officers  of  that  service  that  200  Aus- 
trian or  246  English  pounds  =  17  stone  8  lb.,  is  the  max- 
imum load  admissible.  This  would  be  exactly  one-third 
of  the  weight  of  the  lighter  horse,  and  about  two-sevenths 
that  of  the  heavier  one  ;  so  that,  in  fact,  if  this  rule  were 
adhered  to,  it  would  make  light  cavalry  heavier  (for 
the  horse)  than  heavy  cavalry.  But  we  suspect  that 
both  one  and  the  other  have  transgressed  this  limit  at 
various  times.  Very  recently,  indeed,  the  Austrian 
light  cavalry  has  thrown  away  sabretaches,  echabraques, 
cruppers,  pistol-holsters,  and  no  end  of  other  useless 
lumber,  to  the  great  ease  of  the  horses'  backs;  and  the 
cuirassiers  have  been  all  converted  into  dragoons.  Tak- 
ing 246  lb.  as  the  total  weight,  and  deducting  66  kilog., 
or  1 45 J  lb.,  for  the  average  man,  there  would  remain 
for  arms,  saddle,  kit,  etc.,  100  lb.,  which  ought  to 
suffice. 

The  French  "Aide  Memoire  "  gives  us  992^  English 
pounds  for  the  weight  of  the  horse,  and  1296^  for  the 
trooper  complete  ;  consequently,  the  burden  is  304^  lb., 
or  less  than  one-third :  and  deducting  from  this,  as 
before,  145J  lb.  for  the  man,  there  remains  158I  lb.  of 
dead  weight.  It  is  no  doubt  this,  and  something  con- 
nected with  the  seat,  which  is  very  far  back.,  the  stir- 
rups being  very  far  forward.,  that  we  must  look  to  for 
an  explanation  of  the  sore-back  disasters  of  1859.  -^^ 
may  appear  absurd  to  accuse  the  French  cavalry  of  rid- 
ing with  a  "  hunting  seat,"  but  in  truth  theirs  is  an 
exaggeration  of  a  bad  one. 


»00  Scats  and  Saddles. 

A  Prussian  book*  gives  1152  English  pounds  for  the 
weight  of  the  heavy  horse,  and  1546  EngHsh  pounds  for 
the  cuirassier  completely  armed  ;  consequently  the  bur- 
den is  394  lb.,  or  more  than  one-third  of  the  animal's 
weight;  and  having  deducted  the  145J  lb.  for  the  aver- 
age man,  there  remains  248^  lb.  dead  weight,  or  exactly 
50  lb.  more  than  Migout  and  Bergery's  estimate  of  what 
the  total  burden  should  be.  The  light  Prussian  horse 
is  set  down  at  921  English  pounds,  and  the  dragoon  or 
hussar  complete  at  1252  English  pounds.  Proceeding 
as  before,  we  find,  therefore,  that  these  horses  carry  331 
lb. =  23  stone  9  lb.,  also  more  than  one-third  their  own 
weight,  of  which  185^  lb.  is  dead  weight,  or  within  13 
lb.  of  what  the  French  authority  lays  down  as  the  total 
admissible  burden.  Now  it  is  remarkable  that,  not- 
withstanding this  unfavorable  state  of  things,  we  have 
hitherto  heard  nothing  about  Prussian  sore-back  disas- 
ters in  the  campaign  of  1866,  although  the  cavalry  did 
an  immense  deal  of  work  ;  and  this  can  only  be  attrib- 
buted  to  a  better  seat  and  method  of  riding  than  the 
French,  for  the  dead  weight  is  absolutely  greater. 

If  anything  is  to  be  made  of  cavalry  in  future  wars, 
the  burden  of  the  horses  must  be  diminished.  The  most 
obvious  way  is  by  lessening  the  dead  weight ;  but  why 
should  not  smaller  men  be  selected.''  After  all,  what  is 
really  necessary  is,  that  the  soldier  should  be  tall  enough 
to  mount  with  ease  and  to  clean  his  horse.  Anything 
beyond  that  is  superfluous. 

Let  us  compare  with  the  above,  in  order  to  show  how 
far  a  "  hunting-seat"  method  is  applicable  to  cavalry 
purposes,  some  English  standards  of  weight  for  flat-ra- 
cing and  steeple-chasing,  taken  at  random  from  the  news- 
papers. For  five-year-olds  we  find  10  st.  12  lb.,  or  152 
lb.,  for  half  a  mile  flat,  and  12  st,  or  168  lb.,  for  aged 
horses.  For  five-year-olds,  10  st.  12  lb. =  152  lb.,  and 
*  Ludwig  Schone,  "  Feldbruckenbau." 


The  Military  Seat.  lOl 

ibr  six-year-olds,  ii  st.  4  lb. =  158  lb.,  for  two  miles' 
6teei:)le-chase.  For  five-year-olds,  11  st.  7  lb. ==161  lb., 
and  for  an  aged  mare,  12  st.=  i68  lb.,  for  a  three  mile 
hunter's  stakes  steeple-chase.  These  are,  we  believe, 
fair  samples  ;  but  the  horses  that  carry  these  weights  do 
it  once  for  all :  they  are  the  best  of  their  kind  perhaps 
in  the  world,  and  are  trained  and  fed  in  a  way  quite 
beyond  the  reach  of  cavalry.  The  immediate  object, 
too,  is  to  take  the  most  out  of  the  individual  horse  for 
the  moment ;  in  fact,  all  the  conditions  are  different. 

And  as  to  the  seat,  the  hunting  rider  can  adjust  his 
weight  as  he  pleases ;  he  may  vary  his  position  in  the 
saddle,  which  constitutes  the  whole  of  the  dead  weight, 
and  need  not  exceed  14  lbs.  ;  his  doing  so  must  not 
necessarily  give  his  horse  a  sore  back  or  bruised 
withers.  On  the  other  hand,  the  dead  weight  carried 
by  the  troop-horse  is  most  usually  equal  to,  in  many 
cases  greater,  than  that  of  the  rider ;  a  shifting  of  the 
seat  will  therefore  necessarily  destroy  not  only  the  poise 
of  the  horse,  but,  what  is  still  worse,  that  of  the  saddle 
— and  this  is  what  kills  the  horses,  or  at  least  sends 
them  into  hospital.  The  cavalry  soldier's  seat  7nust  be 
therefore  fixed,  and  not  subject  to  variation  ;  in  charg- 
ing he  must  bend  his  body  forward,  from  the  hips 
upward,  in  order  to  use  his  weapons  and  stand  in  his 
stirrups,  and  this  will  all  suffice  to  accelerate  the  speed 
of  his  horse.  The  grand  rule  is  to  arrange  tlie  saddle 
itself  and  the  stirrups  so  that  the  rider  can  only  sit  in 
the  proper  position^  that  he  falls  naturally  into  it^  and 
that  it  reqjiires  no  muscular  effort  to  maintain  it.  If 
this  be  not  the  case,  the  moment  the  man  becomes 
tired,  or  his  horse  makes  a  rapid  movement,  the  whole 
seat  is  lost,  and  the  muscular  effort  that  should  remain 
altogether  available  for  the  sabre  or  lance,  is  expended 
in  endeavoring  to  maintain  or  regain  an  injudicious 
seat.     The  true  seat  is  therefore  in  the  middle  of  the 


I02  Seats  and  Saddles. 

saddle,  whose  upper  surface  should  be  so  formed  as  not 
to  admit  of  any  other  one  ;  then  the  stirrup  must  be 
under  the  seat,  and  not  8  to  12  inches  in  front  of  it. 
The  English  hussar,  Plate  VII.,  is  evidently  expending 
muscular  action  to  keep  his  stirrup  in  a  certain  posi- 
tion at  an  angle  to  its  natural  fall,,  instead  of  the 
stirrup  supporti7ig  his  leg  as  the  latter  falls.  Such  a 
position  is  not  maintainable  for  any  length  of  time,  or 
in  sharp  movement.  In  trot,  for  instance,  the  soldier, 
not  being  permitted  to  rise  In  his  saddle,  must  seek  a 
support  which  the  stirrups  cannot  afford  otherwise  than 
by  assuming  an  angle  at  the  other  side  of  the  perpen- 
dicular— that  is  to  say,  the  tread  in  the  stirrup  comes  to 
be  in  the  direction  of  the  poi?it  of  the  horse's  shoulder, 
*'  tongs  across  a  wall,"  and  the  counter-action  is  then 
upward  in  the  line  of  the  man's  thigh,  against  which 
the  intestines  descend,  and  produce,  if  there  is  the 
slightest  natural  weakness  in  the  individual,  rupture. 
The  stirrups  being  far  forward  in  the  hunting  or  civilian 
saddle  is  not  so  injurious  in  this  way,  because  the  rider 
evades  the  shock  by  rising  in  the  saddle,  and  this  is  just 
what  led  to  the  English  way  of  riding ;  but  the  cavalry 
soldier  cannot  do  so. 

It  is  all  very  well  to  say  the  man  mzist  retain  the  po- 
sition prescribed  for  him  ;  If  he  Is  constantly  on  the 
strain  to  do  so,  he  simply  cannot ;  besides  which,  the 
stirrup  is  actually  of  very  little,  if  any,  use  to  him. 
Two-thirds  of  the  time  and  the  whole  of  the  talk  ex- 
pended In  endeavoring  to  make  a  man  retain  an  incon- 
venient seat  can  be  saved,  and  devoted  to  the  much 
more  necessary  objects  of  teaching  him  hozv  to  manage 
his  horse  and  use  his  weapons,,  if  you  make  the  pre- 
scribed seat  Inevitable,  and  every  deviation  from  It 
uncomfortable  ;  and  this  can  be  easily  done. 

With  the  light  cavalry  (or  Hungarian)  saddle.  It  will 
not  do  to  put  a  man    Into  it  as  It  comes   out  of  the 


TJie  Military  Seat. 


103 


saddler's  hands,  and  order  him  to  sit  in  a  particular 
manner ;  it  is  just  as  necessary,  or  more  so,  to  make 
the  saddle  fit  the  man's  seat,  as  to  make  his  coat  or 
boots  fit  his  body  or  feet ;  and  this  is  done,  after  careful 
observation  of  the  seat,  by  shortening  or  lengthening 
the  bearing-strap  of  the  seat,  or  by  altering  the  lacings, 
till  the  seat  comes  right  of  itself,  when  you  don't  need 
to  correct  it  in  the  riding-school.  Fig.  5  shows  the 
outlines  of  those  Huno^arian  saddles.     At  a  the  bearins:- 


strap  of  the  seat  is  laced  down  so  as  to  have  its  lowest 
point  toward  the  rear  of  the  saddle,  the  consequence 
of  which  is  to  throw  the  rider's  seat  back  on  the  Mon- 
boddo  bone,  bringing  the  thigh  forward  and  the  knee 
toward  the  horse's  shoulder,  wash-ball  fashion.  At  6 
the  reverse  is  the  case  ;  the  bearing-strap  being  laced 
down  in  front,  its  hinder  part  throws  the  rider  altoge- 
ther into  his  fork,  and  the  thigh  and  leg  come  too 
far  back,  muff  fashion  ;  a  bends  his  neck  and  shoulders 


I04  Seats  and  Saddles, 

somewhat  forward  in  order  to  get  his  balance,  while 
b  strains  them  backward.  At  c  the  lowest  part  of  the 
bearing-strap  is  in  the  middle  of  the  saddle,  all  of  which 
variation  depends  on  the  lacing,  supposing  the  length 
of  the  strap  itself  to  be  the  same  ;  c  therefore  sits  on 
his  triangle  with  his  body  upright  and  his  legs  coming 
down  in  their  natural  fall,  his  whole  weight  being 
spread  over  the  entire  under-surface  of  the  saddle- 
blades  ;  while  it  is  evident  that  the  weight  of  «,  being 
far  to  the  rear,  will  press  down  the  hinder  ends  of  the 
saddle-blades  into  the  horse's  back,  tilting  up  the  front 
ends  ;  <5,  on  the  contrary,  drives  the  saddle-blade  ends 
into  the  horse's  withers  ;  «'s  saddle  will  probably  run 
forward,  (5's  horse  run  through  the  girths. 

The  place  of  the  stirrup  and  its  influence  on  the  seat 
is  here  altogether  left  out  of  consideration.  It  should 
be  made  to  accord  with  the  seat,  and  not  the  seat  with 
it,  otherwise  the  rider  is  always  "contending  against'* 
his  stirrups,  instead  of"  depending  on  them." 

How  the  bearing-strap  of  the  saddle  should  be  ex- 
actly laced  will  depend  altogether  on  the  "plenitude" 
or  "poverty"  of  the  seat  of  honor  of  each  individual 
rider.  A  very  full-sized  sitting  part  requires  the  lacing 
to  approach  that  shown  at  a  in  order  to  make  the  rider 
sit  like  c;  a  very  spare  man,  on  the  contrary,  will  re- 
quire something  like  b  for  the  same  purpose  ;  for  most 
young  men  it  will  do  best  as  at  c* 

*  The  bearing-strap  of  the  seat  is  best  made  of  a  piece  of  good 
girthing-web,  doubled  together  so  as  to  form,  with  its  central  portion, 
a  collar  to  embrace  neatly  the  hinder  knob  of  the  saddle,  the  two 
branches  being  sewed  by  their  edges  together  down  the  middle  of 
the  seat,  and  ending,  the  one  with  a  strap,  the  other  with  a  buckle, 
which,  when  united,  form  a  corresponding  collar  for  the  front  knob. 
Brass  eyelet-holes  stamped  into  the  outer  edges  at  certain  intervals 
would  be  an  improvement.  Of  course  a  movable  pad  covers  this 
bearing-strap,  the  lacings  and  the  side-plate  of  the  saddle,  as  far  down 
as  the  tops  of  the  girth  at  each  side,  but  it  is  on  the  length  of  the 


The  Military  Seat.  105 

The  same  principle  applies  exactly  to  civilian  saddles. 
If  you  know  yourself  how  3'ou  want  to  sit,  you  must  tell 
this  to  the  saddler  before  he  has  constructed  the  seat,  as 
that  depends  on  him  and  not  on  the  saddle-tree  maker. 
It  is  also  evident  that,  if  the  stirrups  of  a  given  tree  hap- 
pen to  be  hung  too  far  forward,  the  defect  can  only  be 
remedied  by  bringing  the  lowest  point  of  the  seat  of  the 
saddle  nearer  to  them,  for  the  tree  itself  must  remain  as 
the  rule  of  thumb  turned  it  out  of  the  workshop.  Civil- 
ians fancy  that  a  cavalry  seat  must  be  stilf  and  con- 
strained ;  to  be  good  //  7uust  be  perfectly  easy  and  un- 
constrained, and  then  it  will  not  only  answer  its  purpose, 
but  be  really  graceful. 

One  of  the  great  difficulties  is  about  the  pack.  There 
is  no  use  in  putting  the  saddle  in  the  middle  of  the 
horse's  back,  and  the  stirrups  and  rider  in  the  middle  of 
the  saddle,  unless  you,  at  the  same  time,  distribute  the 
weight  of  the  pack  equably  before  and  behind  the  latter  ; 
the  component  parts  of  the  dead  weight  must  be  accu- 
rately balanced  against  each  other.  As  regards  the  form, 
it  should  be  made  as  Jiat  as  possible^  instead  of  being 
built  up  into  two  great  mountains  in  front  and  rear  of 
the  rider's  seat,  and  this  for  the  following  reasons : 
First,  the  nearer  the  pack  is  to  the  perpendicular  line 
falling  through  the  centres  of  motion  and  gravity  the 
less  will  it  incommode  the  horse  by  its  vibrations,  tend 
to  displace  the  saddle,  or  be  liable  to  break  the  straps 
and  shake  loose  itself;  and  the  centre  of  gravity  is  most 
undoubtedly  under  the  rider's  seat ;  therefore,  on  this 
account  alone,  the  lower  and  flatter  the  pack  the  better. 
Secondly,  if  the  pack  be  high  in  rear  of  the  rider,  as 
shown  by  the  English  hussar,  Plate  VII.,  the  difficulty 
of  getting  into  and  out  of  the  saddle  is  greatly  enhanced, 

bearing-strap  and  the  way  in  which  it  is  laced  that  the  form  of  the 
seat  will  depend.  Of  course  all  the  edges  of  these  wooden  saddles 
must  be  nicely  beveled  off. 


ro6  Seats  and  Saddles. 

and  with  it  the  chances  of  deranging  the  latter  and  caus- 
ing it  to  turn  round  ;  which  leads  to  overtight  girthing. 
The  Austrian  "  hulan,"  shown  on  the  same  Plate,  's 
taken  from  a  colored  penny  picture,  the  only  thing  we 
can  for  the  moment  procure,  and  is,  consequently,  not 
so  correct  as  the  hussar,  who  was  photographed  from 
life ;  still  it  serves  to  show  what  can  be  done  in  making 
the  pack  flat,  and  adapting  it  closely  to  the  horse's  body. 
The  white  cloak,  it  will  be  observed,  is  folded  flat  and 
placed  above  the  sheepskin,  where  it  can  be  got  at  with- 
out opening  up  the  whole  pack,  and  the  valise  is  also 
flat.  Why  these  articles  were  ever  rolled  up  into  long 
cylinders,  the  most  intractable  and  inconvenient  form 
that  can  be  devised,  is  utterly  unaccountable,  except  on 
the  supposition  of  cavalry  officers  having  been  pecu- 
liarly subject  to  softening  of  the  brain,  in  consequence, 
no  doubt,  of  the  solidity  of  the  shakos  and  helmets  worn 
in  those  days.  Thirdly,  a  mountain  of  pack  in  front  of 
the  rider  renders  it  utterly  impossible  to  adopt  a  proper 
system  of  bitting,  or  to  make  the  pull  on  the  reins  act  in 
the  proper  direction  ;  even  with  the  greatest  care  and 
management,  the  bridle-hand  of  the  cavalry  soldier  must 
be  necessarily  placed  at  a  greater  distance  from  the 
horse's  withers  than  that  of  the  civilian  :  we  shall,  how- 
ever, have  more  to  say  on  this  point  in  the  second  part 
of  this  little  work. 

The  old  heavy  cavalry  leather  saddle  is  gradually  dis- 
appearing in  almost  all  services,  because  it  can  neither 
be  adapted  to  each  individual  horse  nor  rider.  There  is 
only  one  seat  possible  with  it,  the  chair-seat,  which 
thiows  the  weight  all  to  one  end,  and  produces  sore 
backs  much  more  frequently  than  a  well-arranged 
wooden  or  Hungarian  saddle  with  a  proper  seat.  Sev- 
eral modifications  of  the  Hungarian  saddle  have  been 
adopted — amongst  others,  a  Danish  model ;  but  it  is 
quite  absurd  to  attempt  to  retain,  as  has  been  done  in 


The  Military  Seat.  1 07 

many  instances,  the  chair-seat  of  the  heavy  cavah'y  sad- 
dle in  a  wooden  one — better  far  stick  to  the  old  form  : 
however,  the  difficulty  will  probably  be  ended  by  heavy 
cavalry  being  gradually  abandoned,  for  which  there  are 
many  other  reasons  than  merely  the  technical  ones  we 
have  had  to  deal  with. 

We  cannot  wind  up  this  portion  of  our  work  better 
than  with  a  few  remarks  on  the  following  passage  from 
the  "  Handy  Horse-Book,"  pp.  48,  49  :  "Altogether  it 
might  be  desirable  that  commanding  officers  of  some 
cavalry  regiments  would  study  the  pose  on  horseback 
of  Marochetti's  sculptured  dragoons,  or  those  of  other 
eminent  artists.  The  result  would  probably  be  a  marked 
improvement  in  the  position  of  the  saddle,  and  conse- 
quently, in  the  general  coup  d'ceil  of  our  cavalry,"  etc. 
Now,  if  it  were  merely  for  appearance'  sake,  we  should 
say  that  no  real  advantage  of  other  methods  should  be 
sacrificed  to  this  ;  but,  after  all,  what  is  Marochetti's 
pose,  and  why  have  he  and  other  eminent  artists  suc- 
ceeded in  producing  works  that  please  the  eye  of  such 
judges  of  horsemanship  as  "  Magenta  "  and  other  sport- 
ing men  ?  and  why  are  our  public  places  disfigured  by 
absurd  equestrian  statues?  Simply  because  Marochetti 
perfectly  understood  the  equilibrium  of  the  horse  and 
rider,  and  was  bound  to  do  so,  as  otherwise  he  could 
never  have  got  the  weight  of  material  to  balance  on  a 
pair  of  legs,  but  must  have  had  recourse,  like  others,  to 
a  post  growing  out  of  the  ground  and  into  the  horse's 
belly  to  sustain  it,  or  wholly  abstained  from  the  attempt 
to  reproduce  his  figures  in  motion.  And  the  ease  and 
dignity  of  his  statuettes  depend  on  the  impression  they 
make  on  the  spectator  of  their  perfect  security,  and  be- 
cause they  exhibit  the  rider  as  having  a  perfect  control 
over  the  movements  of  his  horse  ;  and  this  is  what  a 
cavalry  soldier  should  have.  What  can  be  more  undig- 
nified or  repugnant  to  good  taste  than  to  put  a  great 


io8  Seats  and  Saddles, 

military  leader  on  a  horse  in  the  position  in  which 
grooms  used  to  ride  to  water?  It  disgusts,  from  being 
altogether  out  of  character. 

But,  as  we  have  shown,  the  safety  of  the  horse's  back 
and  the  life  of  the  rider — that  is  to  say,  the  efficiency  of 
the  cavalry — depend  altogether  on  perfect  equilibrium  ; 
and  this,  we  take  it,  is  a  much  higher  consideration  than 
appearance.  Fortunately,  however,  what  is  really  good 
and  to  the  purpose  does  please  the  eye  in  this  as  in  many 
other  matters.  Lastly,  far  from  thinking  that  a  good 
method  of  riding  to  hounds  is  incompatible  with,  or  an- 
tagonistic to,  ^  good  system  of  military  riding,  we  be- 
lieve that  the  former  has  been  of  great  use  to  the  latter 
in  emancipating  it  to  a  certain  extent  from  the  pedantry 
of  the  old  haute  ecole^  and  laying  the  foundation  for  the 
modern  S3'stem  of  "•  campaign  riding,"  which  is  better 
adapted  to  our  present  cavalry  tactics.  And,  after  all, 
there  is  not  so  much  difference  between  a  good  hunting 
and  di  good  military  seat  as  many  people  suppose  ;  nor 
should  they,  on  the  other  hand,  bo  considered  identical, 
as  many  others  believe,  the  objects  to  be  attained  and 
the  means  being  different.  And  this  is  quite  certain, 
that  the  wash-ball  seat"  is  just  as  useless  for  the  one  as 
''  tongs  across  a  wall  "  is  for  the  other.  Exaggeration 
spoils  good  riding,  as  it  will  the  best  argument,  and  is 
ridiculous  into  the  bargain. 


PART  II 


BITS  AND  BITTING. 


CHAPTER   I 


GENERAL    PRINCIPLES. 


THERE  is  scarcely  anything  of  more  frequent  oc- 
currence than  the  transition  from  an  incorrect 
mode  of  expression  to  a  popular  error  ;  we  see  instances 
of  this  daily  occurring.  No  doubt  the  incorrect  mode 
of  expression  usually  arises,  in  the  first  instance,  either 
from  confusion  of  ideas  or  false  appreciation  of  facts,  or 
both  taken  together ;  but  when  once  brought  into  cur- 
rency, it  is  frequently  accepted  not  only  as  a  fitting 
designation,  but  actually  as  a  true  explanation  of  the 
nature  or  mode  of  operation  of  the  thing  designated, 
and  thus  grows  into  what  is  called  a  popular  error. 

It  is  more  especially  in  matters  connected  with  me- 
chanical contrivances  that  we  observe  this  to  take  place, 
and  the  reason  is  very  obvious.  Such  modes  of  expres- 
sion originate  with  what  are  called  practical  men,  who, 
seldom  having  leisure  or  scientific  education  sufficient 
to  enable  them  to  construct  at  once  correct  definitions, 
commonly  judge  by  the  eye  or  the  touch,  and  translate 
the  evidence  of  one  of  these  senses  into  a  name.  It  is 
in  this  way  that  the  peculiar  languages  of  handicrafts 
usually  grow  up,  and  the  apprenticeship  to  these  con- 
sists to  a  great  extent  in  the  acquisition  of  the  proper 
application  of  such  technical  terms ;  so  that,  in  fact, 
this  sort  of  language  becomes  the  means  of  keeping 

111 


112  Bits  and  Bittum 


^5 


secret  certain  processes  for  the  benefit  of  the  initiated, 
and  to  the  exclusion  of  the  general  public. 

There  can  be,  perhaps,  no  very  serious  objection  to 
this  in  general,  the  great  desideratum  being  that  the 
workman  should  know  how  to  do  his  work  properly, 
not  suffering  himself  to  be  misled  by  the  kind  of  mys- 
tical jargon  applied  to  it ;  but  there  are  cases  in  which 
it  does  an  infinity  of  mischief,  and  tends  to  the  propa- 
gation of  serious  errors.  To  give  a  practical  illustra- 
tion :  of  the  thousands  that  ride  and  drive  horses  in 
this  country,  but  very  few  have  acquired  the  art  other- 
wise than  by  self-teaching — what  is  called  practice  ;  and 
of  the  nearly  equally  great  number  who  are  entrusted 
with  the  care  and  management  of  these  animals,  pre- 
cisely the  same  may  be  said.  What  shall  w^e  say  of 
the  somewhat  numerous  class  of  individuals  that  under- 
take to  "break  in"  horses,  as  it  is  called,  except  that 
they  distinguish  themselves  generally  by  an  abundance 
of  courage  and  determination — very  necessary  qualifica- 
tions they  are,  too — and  an  equally  great  lack  of  any- 
thing like  rational  principle  to  guide  them  in  the  exer- 
cise of  what  they  have  converted  into  a  handicraft. 
There  Is  a  fourth  class,  not  numerous  indeed,  but  very 
important  in  their  way :  those  artisans  who  spend  all 
their  lives  in  the  forge  or  workshop  have  seldom  if 
ever  any  even  the  slightest  knowledge  of  horses,  and 
still  are  entrusted  with  the  fabrication  of  those  instru- 
ments, too  frequently  of  torture,  vs^hich  we  apply  to 
almost  the  most  sensitive  part  of  the  animal's  body,  his 
mouth. 

Now  there  is  scarcely  any  one  expression  so  common 
among  riders,  drivers,  grooms  and  horse-breakers  as 
that  a  horse*s  mouth  is  hard  or  soft;  and  when  one 
comes  to  inquire  into  the  best  mode  of  attaining  the 
last-named  quality,  which  is,  of  course,  that  most  de- 
sired, we  find  that  the  exceedingly  sensitive  gums  of 


General  Principles.  113 

the  horse  are  supposed  to  become  soft  hi  consequence 
of  being  subjected  to  a  greater  or  less  amount  of  press- 
ure from  a  piece  of  hard  iron  ;  an  idea  in  itself  perfectly 
monstrous  and  contrary  to  fact,  inasmuch  as  long-con- 
tinued pressure,  if  not  too  violent  in  degree,  has  the 
tendency  to  produce  a  gradual  thickening  of  the  mem- 
branes— in  fact,  renders  the  mouth  callous,  or  the  con- 
trary of  soft ;  and  if  so  violent  in  degree  as  to  destroy 
the  textures,  and  actually  involve  mechanical  softness, 
the  reverse  of  w^hat  is  understood  by  a  soft  mouth  is 
nearly  always  produced. 

Here,  then,  most  people  who  have  to  do  with  horses 
start  in  life  with  an  incorrect  mode  of  expression,  which 
leads  directly  to  a  misconception  of  an  important  ques- 
tion, and  this  in  its  turn  to  absurd  and  mischievous 
methods  of  practice,  and  all  this  from  a  want  of  know- 
ledge or  a  proper  application  of  the  simplest  mechan- 
ical principi.es.  It  requires,  indeed,  only  the  most 
superficial  inspection  of  a  horse  or  other  animal,  either 
standing  or  in  motion,  to  perceive  that  we  have  to  do 
with  a  series  of  much  more  beautiful  and  perfect  me- 
chanical contrivances  than  human  ingenuity  is  capable 
of  devising,  for  the  elasticity  and  power  of  animal 
muscle  and  tendon  is  altogether  beyond  our  imitation  ; 
and  this,  applied  to  a  most  wonderful  combination  of 
levers,  constitutes  the  mechanism  of  animal  power.  A 
little  further  consideration  cannot  fail  to  show  us  that 
the  means  we  employ  to  direct  the  power  of  a  horse, 
and  make  it  subservient  to  our  wants  and  wishes,  are 
f  Jtogether  mechanical  in  their  nature  ;  and  on  entering 
into  an  analysis  of  their  mode  of  action,  we  find  them  to 
consist  in  the  application  of  the  principles  of  the  lever 
and  of  equilibrium — matters  belonging  respectively  to 
the  domains  of  statics  and  dynamics. 

The  great  difficulty  in  the  rational  application  of 
these  principles  arises  partly  from  the  complexity  of  all 
10*  H 


1 14  Bits  and  Bitting. 

problems  connected  with  "  equilibrium  in  motion,"  and 
partly  on  account  of  the  very  great  diversity  in  the  de- 
tails of  the  construction  and  the  relative  proportions  of 
these  animated  machines.  If  we  take  the  horse's  neck, 
for  instance,  it  may  be  compared  to  the  tiller  of  a  boat ; 
it  is  the  lever  by  which  the  whole  animal  is  steered,  or, 
in  a  state  of  nature,  steers  itself — the  reins  being  the 
tiller-ropes.  The  lever  formed  by  the  neck  acts  on  that 
part  of  the  dorsal  vertebrae  we  have  shown  to  be  the 
centre  of  motion  ;  and  when  the  horse  is  in  motion,  the 
lever  action  of  the  limbs,  derived  from  the  muscles,  is 
propagated  to  this  same  point,  the  neck  a7id  the  tail 
being  the  regulators  of  the  movement ;  for  by  means 
of  the  neck,  the  animal,  as  has  been  shown  in  Part  I., 
adjusts  its  equilibrium  according  to  the  degree  of  ve- 
locity it  requires,  and  according  to  whether  it  wishes 
to  move  on  straight  or  on  curved  lines ;  and  a  little 
attention  to  the  movements  of  young  horses,  when  per- 
fectly uncontrolled,  wnll  suffice  to  show  that  the  position 
of  the  neck  is  constantly  varied  to  suit  the  exigencies 
of  the  moment,  the  tail  following  its  movements  in  the 
most  graceful  manner  as  a  counterpoise.* 

It  is  precisely  for  this  reason  that  a  proper  command 
over  the  horse's  neck  is  of  such  value  to  the  rider,  en- 
abling him  to  vary  the  condition  of  equilibrium  as  suits 
his  views  for  the  moment,  and  to  weight  one  or  both  of 
the  hind  legs,  alternately  or  simultaneously,  as  may  best 
serve  his  purpose.  It  is  on  a  perfect  knowledge  of  this 
principle  that  the  success  of  handling  young  horses,  or 
the  overcoming  the  vices  of  those  that  have  been  inju- 
diciously handled,  depends ;  and  there  is  no  more  fre- 
quent cause  of  restiveness  or  indocility  than  an  abuse  of 
the  lever  action  of  the  neck  with  young  animals! 

*  It  would  be  easy  to  show  that  breeds  of  horses  employed  con- 
stantly for  one  particular  movement  have  their  tails  differentl) 
seated  and  developed  from  those  that  are  employed  for  a  variety  of 
purposes.     Our  English  race-horse  is  an  instance. 


General  Pi'inciples.  115 

Some  years  ago  a  great  sensation  was  produced  by  a 
system  of  riding,  or  rather  handling  horses,  introduced 
by  M.  Baucher,  a  French  riding-master.  According  to 
this  gentleman,  the  power  of  resisting  the  will  of  the 
rider,  and  therefore  the  seat  of  all  restiveness,  is  located 
in  that  part  of  the  neck  which  forms  the  articulation  with 
the  head  ;  and  he  found  that,  by  getting  the  horse's  head 
into  a  particular  position,  and  fixing  it  there,  he  could 
more  or  less  perfectly  master  the  volition  of  the  animal. 
But  it  soon  appeared  that  M.  Baucher's  system  had  the 
radical  defect  of  destroying  all  the  horse's  paces  ;  and 
the  Due  de  Nemour's  condemnation  of  it,  or  rather  the 
sentence  he  passed  on  it,  "  Jc  ne  veux  pas  d'un  systeme 
qui  prend  sur  V impulsio7i  des  chevaux,"  was  most  per- 
fectly justified.* 

Now  the  error  into  which  M.  Bauclier  fell  was  this : 
The  horse's  neck  is,  no  doubt,  a  very  powerful  agent  in 
our  hands;  it  is,  as  we  have  already  shown,  the  lever, 
and  the  only  one  too,  by  which  we  obtain  a  command 
over  the  entire  motive  mechanism  of  the  horse,  especially 
the  hind  legs  ;  but  it  is  only  by  varying  its  position  that 
this  can  be  usefully  effected — by  suiting  this  to  the 
pace,  and  the  direction  of  the  animal's  movements ; 
whilst  M.  Baucher  insisted  on  one  invariable  position 
of  the  head  and  neck.  [Moreover,  the  pull  on  the  reins 
was  not  in  the  direction  of  the  centre  of  motion,  and 
could  not  act  with  precision  on  the  hind  legs  ;  finally, 
the  position  of  the  horse's  head  and  neck  was  such  as 
rather  to  increase  than  diminish  the  overhanging  weight 
of  these  members.  Compare  fig.  3,  Part  I.,  with  the 
French  hussar  a  la  Baucher  in  Plate  VI.,  which  also 
shows  the  immense  height  and  bulk  of  the  pack,  and 
the  seat  of  the  rider  altogether  on  the  hinder  part  of  the 
saddle,  although  no  doubt  in  exaggeration.     Baucher*s 

*  This,  too,  was  the  error  of  the  Duke  of  Newcastle's  system,  which 
drove  us  into  the  opposite  extreme. 


n6  Bits  and  LlttlTig. 

"  handling"  was  almost  all  done  when  the  horse  was 
standing  still,  and  its  effect  either  became  null  when  the 
animal  was  put  in  motion,  or,  if  preserved,  the  power 
of  locomotion  was  seriously  impeded.  No  horse  ever 
voluntarily  assumed  such  a  position  of  his  head  and 
neck  as  that  prescribed  by  M.  Baucher — in  fact,  it  was 
wholly  unsuited  to  any  form  of  movement ;  it  was  like 
attempting  to  steer  a  ship  that  had  no  way  on  her.  He 
overlooked  altogether  the  problem  of  equilibrium  in 
motion,  and  tnistook  dlmhiution  or  restriction  of  7no- 
tive  pozver  for  a  fcifoct  command  over  it^  under  all 
circ2imstances  and  at  every  degree  of  speed.  It  is  un- 
necessary to  add  that  the  demon  of  restiveness,  whose 
habitation  he  fancied  he  had  discovered  in  the  neck- 
joint,  and  whom  he  constantly  attempted  to  exorcise, 
W'as  simply  the  creature  of  his  own  fantasy. 

The  various  purposes  to  which  horses  are  applied 
demand,  of  course,  different  details  of  handling  ;  but  one 
broad  principle  applies  to  them  all — namely,  to  get  the 
whole  lever  power  of  the  animal  to  act  in  conjunction 
with  its  weight  in  the  required  direction,  and  this  with 
such  a  degree  of  leaning  on  the  bit  that  the  power  of 
controlling  all  its  motions  with  certainty  and  ease  is 
secured,  without  the  necessity  of  interfering  in  so  abrupt 
a  manner  with  the  animal's  efforts  as  to  impede  them 
unnecessarily  ;  and  to  do  this  in  such  a  manner  that  the 
peculiarities  of  the  individual  horse  and  of  his  work  are 
brought  gradually  into  harmony,  is  the  only  effectual 
means  we  possess  for  avoiding  all  occasion  for  restive- 
ness, and  constitutes  rational  handling,  as  distinguished 
from  purely  empirical  horse-breaking,  as  it  is  usually 
practiced.  For  this  is  the  true  secret,  and  not  such 
violent  methods  as  those  employed  by  Mr.  Rarey  and 
others.  Do  not,  if  possible,  give  your  horse  an  oppor- 
tunity of  resisting  your  will  successfully,  which  is  usu- 
ally a  consequence  of  your  demanding  from  him  some- 


General  Principles,  117 

thing  either  beyond  his  comprehension  or  capacity  ;  and 
should  restiveness  once  occur,  go  back  immediately  to 
something  the  horse  will  do,  and,  if  necessary,  com- 
mence the  whole  process  de  7iovo. 

It  will  be  well  to  explain  here  why  the  perfectly  fresh 
and  sensitive  mouth  of  the  young  horse  conveys  the  sen 
sation  of  hardness  to  the  hand  of  the  rider,  and  why  the 
same  mouth,  after  it  has  really  been  rendered  more  or 
less  callous  by  the  application  of  cold  iron  to  its  delicate 
organization,  comes  to  be  called  soft. 

When  a  horse  is  mounted  for  the  first  time,  the  equi- 
librium of  the  whole  machine  is  disturbed,  which  be- 
comes especially  remarkable  in  the  neck.  The  young 
horse  bores  on  his  bridle,  and  tries  to  acquire  a  new 
point  to  lean  on — a  fifth  leg,  in  fact ;  he  is  hard-mouthed. 
But  when  the  animal  has  learned  how  to  carry  itself 
and  the  rider,  or  acquired  an  artificial  equilibrium 
suited  to  the  altered  circumstances,  then  it  no  longer 
seeks  this  support,  and  the  mouth  is  called  soft.  That 
such  is  really  the  case  can  be  very  satisfactorily  proved. 
A  horse  can  be  brought  into  perfect  equilibrium  under 
the  rider  without  any  bridle  whatever,  merely  by  using 
a  cavesson  instead  ;  and  if  a  snaffle  be  then  put  into  its 
mouth,  this  will  be  found  to  be  exceeding  sensitive,  and 
it  will  require  some  days'  riding  before  it  will  "  take 
the  bit^^  as  the  phrase  is. 

From  what  has  been  just  stated,  it  will  be  easy  to  un- 
derstand how  the  seat  of  the  rider  comes  to  exercise  so 
great  an  influence  on  the  horse's  mouth  that  the  same 
horse  will  go  light  with  one  and  heavy  with  another 
rider.  First  of  all,  it  is  a  question  of  equilibrium.  One 
rider  assumes  a  seat  that  favors,  another  one  that  more 
or  less  seriously  impedes,  the  efforts  of  the  horse  to  get 
into  balance — for  horses  always  try  to  do  this.  But, 
secondly,  supposing  the  seat,  so  far  as  the  distribution 
of  weight  is  concerned,  to  be  identical,  the  unsteady 


1 1 8  Bits  and  Bitting. 

rider  will  seek  a  support  for  himself  in  the  reins,  and 
the  horse  immediately  bores  against  this,  and  becomes 
a  hard  puller  ;  whilst  the  steady  seat  makes  a  light  hand 
and  a  soft  mouth. 

It  is,  in  like  manner,  easy  to  understand  why  not 
only  individuals,  but  whole  breeds  of  horses,  should  be 
found  naturally  light  or  heavy  in  the  hand,  which  is 
owing  mainly  to  the  general  framework  being  more  or 
less  favorable  to  equilibrium  in  motion — mainly,  but  not 
wholly,  because  the  interior  conformation  of  the  mouth 
has  always  a  certain  influence,  and  this  is  scarcely  iden- 
tical in  any  two  horses,  even  as  merely  regards  those 
points  that  have  a  direct  bearing  on  the  working  of  the 
bit;  and,  moreover,  because  temper  and  even  sex  have 
also  to  do  with  it.* 

It  is  abundantly  evident,  from  the  foregoing  remarks, 
that  the  question  of  bits  and  bitting  cannot  be  solved 
without  reference  to  the  whole  theory  of  riding  and 
draught ;  in  fact,  it  forms  a  very  important  part  of  both, 
which  must  serve  as  an  apology  for  the  contents  of  this 
introductory  chapter.  Indeed  we  must  go  a  step  farther 
in  this  direction,  and  call  the  reader's  attention  to  an- 
other item.  What  has  been  said  on  the  subject  of  the 
lever  action  of  the  neck  will  suffice  to  indicate  that  the 
direction  in  which  the  pull  of  the  reins  is  made  to  act 
on  the  centre  of  motion,  through  the  medium  of  the 
head,  must  necessarily  determine  both  the  direction  and 
intensity  of  the  lever  action  transmitted  in  succession  to 
the  other  parts  of  the  animal's  frame.  It  is  in  conse- 
quence of  this  that  by  merely  elevating  or  depressing 
the  hands,  emplojnng  a  certain  amount  of  pressure  with 
*  It  will  be  necessary  to  go  into  farther  detail  on  this  point  in  a  sub- 
sequent chapter.  In  the  mean  while,  we  cannot  refrain  from  observ- 
ing how  absurd  it  is  to  attempt  rigid  uniformity  in  the  patterns  of  bits 
used  by  cavalry,  or,  as  is  not  unfrequently  done,  continuing  through  a 
long  series  of  years  the  use  of  a  bit  originally  destined  for  a  very  dif- 
ferent kind  of  horse  from  that  found  in  the  ranks  at  the  present  day. 


General  Principles.  119 

the  rider's  legs,  and  throwing  his  weight  backward  or 
forward,  that  it  becomes  possible  to  make  the  horse 
alter  the  conditions  of  his  own  equilibrium,  by  bringing 
his  hind  legs  more  under  him,  or  the  contrary.  In  like 
manner  it  is  possible,  supposing  the  pull  to  be  horizon- 
tal— which  is,  by  the  way,  the  normal  direction  for  a 
well-set-up  horse  for  cavalry  purposes,  as  we  shall  pres- 
ently see — to  concentrate  the  lever  action  on  one  of  the 
hind  legs  in  preference  to  the  other,  by  simply  throwing 
our  weight  slightly  to  the  same  side,  which  enables  us 
to  fix,  as  it  were,  certain  legs  to  the  ground,  or  detain 
them  longer  in  contact  with  it,  setting  the  others  free, 
and  determining  with  accuracy  the  mode  and  the  mo- 
ment of  their  employment.  Many  horse-breakers  do  all 
this  by  a  sort  of  instinct.  In  fact,  if  they  could  not  do 
it,  they  would  scarcely  ever  succeed  in  handling  a  horse  ; 
but  there  are  very  few  uneducated  riders  who  compre- 
hend precisely  the  rationale  of  these  processes,  and  are 
capable  of  effecting  them  in  all  cases  with  certainty, 
which  is,  however,  indispensable  to  success  in  the  hand- 
ling of  young  horses,  or  retrieving  the  mistakes  that  have 
been  committed  by  others  with  older  ones. 

We  may  say,  then,  that  the  art  of  bitting  and  bridling 
is  a  very  useful  and  essential  one,  because  it  enables  us 
to  avoid  the  infliction  of  pain,  whilst  it  secures  to  us  a 
perfect  control  over  the  horse's  movements.  It  consists 
in  enabling  us  to  exercise  the  mechanical  action  of  the 
reins  in  the  proper  degree  and  the  right  direction,  for 
every  horse  and  for  ever}^  movement. 

The  influence  of  good  and  judicious  bitting  and  bri- 
dling on  the  breaklng-In  and  training  of  horses  is  incal- 
culable, whilst  ignorance  on  these  points,  and  abuse  of 
these  instruments,  are  a  very  frequent  cause  of  restive- 
ness,  and  of  the  ruin  of  young  animals,  especially  of 
highly-bred  ones  with  their  delicate  organizations.  A 
coking  race-horse  may  be  set  down  pretty  nearly  with 


I20  Bits  a}?d  Bilting. 

certainty  as  one  that  has  been  mismanaged  and  abused 
in  this  respect.  It  is  scarcely  credible  the  amount  of 
terror  with  which  some  horses  regard  the  bit,  and  the 
blind  fury  with  which  they  take  it  between  their  teeth, 
throw  up  their  heads,  and  bolt  in  consequence. 

Considering  the  great  number  of"  unthinking  "  riders 
and  drivers  that  exist  in  all  parts  of  the  world,  it  seems 
perfectly  miraculous,  when  one  looks  at  the  frightful 
instruments  of  torture  placed,  in  the  absurdest  manner, 
in  their  horses'  mouths,  and  used  in  the  most  wonderful 
ways,  that  so  few  accidents  occur.  It  is  only  a  proof 
of  the  admirable  tempers  of  our  horses.  The  Irish  ones 
are  frequently  deficient  in  this  respect,  being  still  more 
grossly  abused.  But  still  one  sees  every  day,  in  broken- 
kneed  horses,  lamentable  evidence  of  the  perversity  and 
ignorance  with  which  horses  are  treated  in  this  great 
horse  country.  There  is  no  use  in  mincing  the  matter : 
this  is,  to  a  great  extent,  a  consequence  of  ignorance 
of  the  true  principles  of  bitting,  saddling  and — riding  ; 
for  a  broken-kneed  horse  is  an  opprobrium  to  its 
rider. 

As  regards  cavalry,  few  things  are  so  important  as 
good  and  careful  bitting.  The  steadiness  of  a  troop  or 
squadron  in  its  evolutions,  and  especially  in  skirmish- 
ing, charging  and  rallying,  depends  mainly  on  it.  The 
writer  of  this  has  on  more  than  one  occasion  converted, 
in  the  course  of  a  few  days  and  at  a  very  moderate 
expense,  a  body  of  this  kind  that  had  become  almost 
unserviceable  from  bad  bitting  into  a  model  of  steadi- 
ness, the  bolters  and  restive  horses  all  disappearing  as 
if  by  magic.  No  doubt,  in  order  to  effect  this,  every 
single  horse's  mouth  must  be  measured,  and  fitted  in  the 
manner  to  be  explained  hereafter.  Three  or  four  sizes 
or  patterns  will  not  sufiice  for  even  i6o  or  i8o  horses, 
much  less  for  a  whole  regiment,  although  our  Cavalry 
Regulations  lay  it  down  as  a  rule   that  each  regiment 


Ge7ieral  Principles,  121 

should  have  "  a^^it' bits  with  different  and  easy  mouth- 
pieces and  curbs,  etc." 

Draught-horses  are,  on  the  whole,  less  absurdly  bitted 
than  those  used  for  the  saddle  in  this  country  ;  and  the 
huge  bits  one  sees  sometimes  in  the  mouths  of  those  de- 
voted to  purposes  of  show  and  pleasure,  although  ridic- 
ulous enough  from  being  so  wholly  out  of  proportion, 
have  their  reins  usually  buckled  into  the  cheeks,  so  as 
to  render  the  lever  action  of  these  wonderful  specimens 
of  ironmongery  perfectly  nugatory,  which  is  so  far  for- 
tunate. It  is,  moreover,  strange  that  it  should  be  the 
fashion  to  "  bear  up  "  carriage-horses  to  a  state  of  bal- 
ance which  more  nearly  approaches  the  equilibrium  of 
the  manege  than  anything  else,  whereas  draught  requires 
the  centre  of  gravity  to  be  carried  forward,  and  the 
weight  thrown  somewhat  more  on  the  fore  legs.  And 
having  touched  on  this  point,  we  may  as  well  say  a  word 
or  two  on  the  subject  of  the  blinds  attached  to  the  bri- 
dles of  harness-horses.  All  of  a  sudden  a  movement 
seems  to  have  sprung  up  in  favor  of  abolishing  this 
appendage,  which  is  asserted  to  be  both  cruel  and  use- 
less. Now,  in  fact,  it  is  neither  the  one  nor  the  other, 
but,  quite  on  the  contrary,  it  has  a  very  decided  use, 
and  from  rendering  the  management  of  horses  easier,  it 
tends  to  save  them  from  the  infliction  of  punishment. 
The  horse's  hind-quarters  are  the  portion  of  his  frame 
most  open  to  attack,  and  the  animal's  instinct  renders  it 
consequently  extremely  jealous  of  every  approach  in  this 
direction,  which  it  is  prone  to  resent  rashly  by  lashing 
out  with  its  heels,  with  or  without  real  provocation.  It 
would  be,  no  doubt,  a  great  cruelty  to  deprive  a  horse, 
by  means  of  blinds,  of  the  faculty  of  providing  for  his 
own  safety  when  this  care  was  naturally  thrown  upon 
him.  But  this  is  not  the  case  with  a  draught-horse  in 
harness  ;  the  driver  is  there  to  assume  this  charge  ;  and 
the  certain  consequences  of  taking  blinds  off  will  be  to 
11 


22  Bits  and  Bitting, 

make  a  great  number  of  horses  kickers,  and  to  cause 
numerous  accidents  to  occur  from  horses  running  away 
to  avoid  some  white  apron  or  handkerchief  or  the  like 
that  appears  in  their  rear.  Teams  of  artillery-horses 
without  blinds  become  in  consequence  unapproachable 
in  column  by  officers  who  have  to  gallop  up  and  down 
with  orders  ;  many  a  leg  has  been  broken  in  this  way, 
and  many  artilleries  have  introduced  blinds  in  conse- 
quence, and  with  immediate  effect.  Horses  without 
blinds  are  always  for  starting  off  before  the  driver  has  a 
hold  of  the  reins,  and  soon  learn  to  kick  at  the  least 
motion  of  the  whip. 

But  enough  has  now  been  said  to  prove  the  great 
importance  of  well  understanding  the  principles  on 
which  bits  and  bridles  should  be  applied  and  con- 
structed, both  as  a  means  of  ensuring  to  the  rider  and 
driver  perfect  command  over  their  horses,  and  also  of 
saving  these  most  useful  and  docile  animals  from  ill 
treatment  and  unnecessary  pain. 


CHAPTER  II. 

THE  NECK — THE  HEAD — THE  MOUTH — THE  TONGUE — 
CARRIAGE FEELING. 

WE  have  spoken  of  the  horse's  neck  as  being  a 
lever,  which  of  course,  strictly  speaking,  sup- 
poses it  to  form  nearly  a  straight  line,  and  to  possess  only 
a  very  limited  amount  of  flexibility,  neither  of  w^hich 
properties,  in  fact,  perfectly  belong  to  it.*  But  a  well- 
shaped  neck,  well  clothed  with  firm  muscles,  possesses 
both  straightness  and  inflexibility  sufficient  to  render  it 
possible  to  apply  to  it  the  theory  of  lever  action  with 
perfect  propriety.  Such  a  neck  will  only  deviate  from 
the  straight  line  to  any  considerable  amount  near  its 
point  of  junction  with  the  head,  this  latter  also  acting 
as  a  lever,  and  imparting  to  the  whole  that  graceful 
curvature  so  pleasing  to  the  eye  even  of  the  uninitiated 
— which  is,  however,  not  merely  a  matter  of  taste, 
being,  in  fact,  an  evidence  of  perfection  of  equilibrium 
and  power. 

It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  say  that  there  are  almost 
infinite  varieties  of  necks  to  be  found  among  horses  as 
regards  these  two  very  important  items  of  straightness 
and  inflexibility ;  it  will,  however,  suffice  for  our  pres- 

*  The  horse's  back  really  forms  a  double  curve,  one  being  turned 
upward,  the  other  downward ;  the  mechanical  action  results  in  a 
straight  line  forming  the  axis  of  the  whole. 

123 


124 


Bits  and  Bittiiig. 


ent  purpose  to  point  out  two  extreme  cases,  the  one  of 
form — the  ewe-neck  ;  the  other  of  want  of  stabiHty — the 
long,  straight,  thin  neck,  scantily  clothed  with  flabby 
muscles.  The  annexed  figure  shows  how  the  direction 
of  the  pull  of  the  reins  is  modified  in  each  instance,  and 
how  this  in  its  turn  changes  the  direction  in  which  the 
neck  acts  on  the  back.  We  see  that  with  the  exagge- 
rated ewe-neck  the  lever  action  goes  downward  under 
the  withers  immediately  on  to  the  fore  legs ;  with  the 


Fig.  6. 

long,  thin  neck  that  bends  throughout  like  a  fishing-rod 
(as  also  with  all  horses  broken  and  bitted  on  Baucher's 
principle),  it  goes  upward  through  the  withers  into  the 
air,  in  both  of  these  cases  missing  altogether  the  centre 
of  motion  ;  while  the  intermediate  position,  combined 
with  the  requisite  degree  of  stability,  affords  a  pull  in 
the  desired  direction,  and,  coupled  with  the  weight  of 
the  rider,  meets  directly  the  action  of  the  hind  legs,  the 
source  of  all  propelling  power. 


The  Neck,  the  Head,  etc.  125 

Nor  is  this  mere  theory,  for  every  one  that  has  mounted 
a  great  variety  of  horses,  and  paid  even  a  moderate  de- 
gree of  attention  to  their  different  styles  of  action,  will 
at  once  recognize  here  the  true  reason  of  the  star-gazer 
appearing  to  have  his  fore  legs  nailed  to  the  ground  by 
the  lightest  pull  on  the  rein,  while  the  croup  and  the 
hind  legs  are  flung  wildly  about,  no  pressure  of  the 
rider's  leg  being  capable  of  steadying  them  and  keeping 
the  brute  straight,  either  at  rest  or  in  motion.  Again, 
who  that  ever  rode  one  of  those  long,  thin-necked,  un- 
stable, rainbow  quadrupeds  that  are  so  a^Dt  to  dazzle 
the  eye  of  the  uninitiated,  can  ever  forget  the  slipperi- 
ness  of  all  its  movements,  and  the  painful  sensation  of 
being  mounted  on  a  machine  composed  of  gutta  percha 
and  glass? — all  of  which,  making  due  allowance  for 
the  irritable  tempers  of  such  horses,  is  a  necessary 
consequence  of  the  pull  of  the  reins  being  in  a  wrong 
direction. 

Let  us  look  at  cavalry  horses.  The  soldier  has  one 
hand  for  the  reins  and  the  other  for  his  weapon  ;  his 
efficiency  depends  altogether  on  his  being  able  to  use 
the  latter  with  precision  and  rapidity ;  and  this  is  an 
impossibility,  unless,  to  use  Sir  Charles  Napier's  words, 
"the  steed  watches  the  ^(\^q^  of  the  weapon" — that  is 
to  say,  follows  the  lightest  movement  of  hand  and  heel 
instantaneously,  as  it  were  intuitively.  The  Minister 
of  War  of  a  certain  German  State  once  represented  to 
his  sovereign  that  it  would  be  necessary  to  give  the 
whole  of  the  cavalry  sabres  of  a  new  pattern,  the  ex- 
isting ones  being  two  hiches  shorter  than  any  others  in 
use  in  foreign  services,  which  would  put  our  troops  to 
great  disadvantage,  quoth  his  Excellency.  "  Then  let 
my  cavalry  soldiers  get  two  inches  nearer  to  their  op- 
ponents than  has  been  hitherto  the  practice,"  replied 
Serenissimus.  It  is  just  this — it  is  an  affair  of  inches ; 
and  these  inches  are  widened  into  yards  when  the  horse 
11 » 


126  Bits  and  Bitting, 

does  not  or  cannot  follow  the  reins  instantaneously  and 
accurately. 

We  have  already  pointed  out  several  disadvantages 
of  the  mountain  of  pack  that  is  built  up  on  the  shoul- 
ders of  some  cavalry  horses  ;  an  additional  one  is,  that 
it  changes  the  line  of  direction  in  which  the  pull  of  the 
rein  acts,  so  as  to  make  it  go  right  up  into  the  sky, 
and  altogether  miss  both  hind  and  fore  legs,  thus  pla- 
cing all  horses,  whatever  the  excellences  or  defects  of 
their  organization  may  be,  on  the  same  dead  level  of 
uncertainty  and  inaccuracy.  It  is  not  the  weight  alone 
of  "the  epitome  of  a  Jew's  old-clothes  shop"  that  is 
so  destructive,  although  this  in  itself  is  bad  and  ab- 
surd enough  ;  what  is  still  worse  is  the  way  in  which 
that  weight  is  distributed,  so  as  not  only  to  render  all 
attempts  at  equilibrium  impossible,  but  also  to  throw 
the  bridle-hand  of  the  rider  so  high  that  he  cannot  use 
any  description  of  bit  advantageously.  A  Cossack  will 
load  his  horse  to  almost  the  same  pernicious  extent 
that  most  regular  light  cavalry  men  are  compelled  to 
do,  and  still  neither  the  speed,  the  agility  nor  the  power 
of  endurance  of  the  little  animal  is  impaired  in  any- 
thing like  the  same  degree  as  happens  with  the  troop- 
horse  ;  the  wxight  is  better  distributed  for  all  purposes. 
—(Plate  VI.) 

No  doubt  it  is  scarcely  possible  to  avoid  some  degree 
of  pack  on  the  front  part  of  the  military  saddle,  but  it 
is  precisely  for  this  reason  that  it  is  so  highly  important 
to  give  the  head  of  the  troop-horse  a  proper  position, 
which  can  only  be  maintained  by  ver}^  careful  and  ac- 
curate bitting,  after  that  of  the  neck  has  been  attained 
by  a  judicious  system  of  riding  and  breaking-in  ;  and 
still  one  is  astonished  to  see  the  pack  of  the  officer 
built  up  into  the  same  absurd  form  as  that  of  the  pri- 
vate, although  there  is  no  necessity  whatever  for  this 
being  done. 


The  Neck^  the  Hcad^  etc.  \2*J 

The  reader  perceives,  by  these  frequent  and  unavoid- 
able digressions,  how  intimately  the  question  of  bits 
and  bitting  is  interwoven  with  the  whole  system  of 
breaking-in  and  riding  horses,  especially  for  military 
purposes  ;  and  he  will  see  farther  on  the  great  import- 
ance of  this  point,  particularly  when  we  come  to  dis- 
cuss the  immediate  action  of  the  bit  on  the  interior  of 
the  horse's  mouth. 

We  have  next  to  consider  the  animal's  head  in  con- 
nection with  this  question.  Hitherto  we  have,  for  the 
sake  of  greater  convenience,  always  mentioned  the  neck 
as  the  lever  by  which  the  rider  controls  the  motion  of 
the  whole  animal;  but  a  simple  inspection  shows  that 
the  head  is  the  lever  by  means  of  which  we  gain  a 
command  over  the  neck,  and  its  size,  weight,  the  man- 
ner in  which  it  is  set  on  to  the  latter,  and  other  partic- 
ulars, have  each  of  them  its  own  share  of  importance. 
It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  say  that  a  very  large,  heavy 
head  renders  it  a  matter  of  extreme  difficulty  to  get  the 
horse  into  anything  like  equilibrium,  and  big-headed 
horses  will  be  therefore  generally,  although  not  always, 
heavy  in  the  hand  ;  but  it  by  no  means  follows  from 
this  that  small  heads  confer  of  themselves  the  opposite 
quality;  in  truth,  more  depends  on  the  way  in  which 
the  head  is  set  on  to  the  neck,  the  make  and  pi  >portions 
of  the  latter,  and  the  facility  thereby  afforded  i«  r  assum- 
ing a  great  variety  of  positions,  than  on  the  absolute 
size  of  the  head  itself. 

Generally  speaking,  all  our  British  breeds  huve  well- 
formed  and  well-proportioned  heads.  Irish  horses, 
however,  have  frequently  large  ones,  and  what  is  of 
still  greater  importance,  peculiarities  of  conformation, 
which,  in  consequence  of  ignorance  and  injudicious 
management,  sometimes  tend  directly  to  produce  rest- 
iveness  or  other  equally  unpleasant  results. 

It  will  be  well  at  this  point  to  call  attention  to  a  very 


128  Bits  and  Bitting. 

simple  mechanical  principle  connected  with  lever  ac- 
tion— namely,  that  the  effect  produced  depends  not 
only  on  the  absolute  power  applied,  but  also  on  the 
direction  in  which  this  is  done.  For  instance,  consider- 
ing the  horse's  head  as  a  lever  which  is  to  act  on  the 
neck  and  bring  it  toward  the  rider's  hand,  it  is  very 
evident  that  if  the  former  be  so  stretched  out  as  to 
form,  as  it  were,  a  continuation  of  the  latter,  as  we  see 
race-horses  coming  into  the  post,  there  is,  in  fact,  no 
lever  action  whatever.  In  the  same  manner,  if  we  can 
imagine  the  horse's  chin  to  be  brought  under,  so  as  to 
touch  his  neck,  there  would  be  very  little,  if  any,  lever 
action.  This  is  greatest  when  the  head  is  at  a  right 
angle  with  the  neck  ;  and  the  more  it  departs  from  this 
line — either  forward,  when  the  animal  pokes  out  its 
nose,  or  to  the  rear,  when,  in  consequence  of  severe 
bitting  or  other  causes  to  which  we  shall  presently  ad- 
vert, it  touches  its  breast  with  its  chin — the  less  will  be 
the  useful  lever  action  on  the  neck. 

In  fact,  we  always  see  runaway  horses  assume  either 
the  one  or  the  other  of  these  two  relative  positions  of 
the  head  and  neck,  the  lever  action  of  the  head  on  the 
neck,  and  of  the  latter  on  the  centre  of  motion,  being 
in  both  cases  reduced  to  a  nullity,  which  deprives  the 
rider  of  all  command  over  his  horse  ;  for  it  cannot  be 
too  often  repeated  that  we  can  only  master  the  horse 
and  obtain  a  perfect  command  over  his  movements  by 
getting  the  point  on  which  his  hind  legs,  the  organs  by 
which  he  propels  himself,  act  completely  under  our 
control,  which  shows  the  absurdity  of  universal  bits 
and  all  such  contrivances. 

With  the  great  majority  of  horses  the  physical  con- 
formation of  the  jaws  opposes  no  obstacle  to  the  head 
assuming  the  most  desirable  position  ;  but  there  are 
some,  and  sometimes  very  good  ones  in  other  respects, 
where  this  does  occur.     Let  us  take,  in  the  first  place, 


TJic  Neck,  the  Ilead^  etc. 


129 


the  depth  of  the  jaw-bone,  measured  perpendicularly  to 
the  forehead  on  a  line  passing  through  the  eye  ;  this 
dimension  is  sometimes  so  great  in  proportion  that  if 
coupled  with  a  coarse,  fleshy,  short  neck,  the  angle  of 
the  jaw  coming  in  contact  with  the  latter,  a  jam  ensues 
before  the  head  can  be  brought  round  to  the  proper 
angle.  But  this  is  perhaps  a  less  frequent,  and  cer- 
tainly a  less  serious,  occurrence  than  another  to  which 
we  must  now  advert. 

A  horse  may  have  a  moderate-sized  or  even  a  small 
head,  and  the  depth  of  jaw  alluded  to  above  may  be  so 


Fig.  7. 

trifling  as  not  to  ofler  the  slightest  impediment  to  the 
former  assuming  any  position  that  may  be  desired,  but 
the  jaws  may  both  converge  inward^  instead  of  diverg- 
ing slightly  as  they  should  ;  consequently  the  space  con- 
tained between  the  two  jaws  is  narrowed  in,  which  pre- 
vents the  neck  fitting  into  this  cavity  to  the  same  extent 
as  it  will  in  a  perfectly  well-shaped  head.  The  angle 
of  flection  in  such  narrow-jawed  horses  is  very  limited 
indeed,  and  becomes  a  serious  impediment  to  the  break- 
ing and  bitting  of  the  animal. 

There  is  another  case  still  worse  than  this,  and  not 
unfrequently  combined  with  it — in  fact,  the  narrowness 

I 


130  Bits  and  Bitting. 

of  the  jaws  very  frequently  becomes  its  exciting  cause. 
Most  persons  conversant  with  horses  must  be  aware 
that  certain  glands  lie  just  under  the  angles  of  the  two 
jaws,  and  run  up  in  the  direction  of  the  ear.  They  are 
the  seat  of  the  affection  peculiar  to  young  animals  known 
under  the  name  of  strangles.  Now  it  is  by  no  means 
unfrequent,  especially  amongst  the  commoner  kind  of 
horses,  to  find  these  glands  large  and  flabby  in  their 
textures.  With  well-bred  and  well-formed  animals  it  is 
often  very  difficult  to  find  them  at  all  under  the  skin. 
Sometimes  the  abnormal  size  of  these  glands  is  evidently 
constitutional,  sometimes  it  is  a  consequence  of  disease — 
strangles,  for  instance — and  sometimes  it  arises  wholly 
from  the  pressure  of  the  angles  of  the  jaws,  especially 
when  these  lie  too  close  together,  and  the  rider  or  driver 
has  attempted  to  force  a  certain  position,  either  by  the 
use  of  severe  bits,  or,  what  is  still  worse,  a  combination 
of  these  with  the  bearing-rein  in  harness. 

If  such  a  state  of  things  be  overlooked  or  neglected, 
very  serious  consequences  may  arise.  The  forced  press- 
ure of  the  jaw-bone  on  these  glands  is  sometimes  per- 
fectly excruciating  to  the  animal,  and  it  has  recourse,  to 
the  great  astonishment  of  its  ignorant  rider  or  driver,  to 
all  sorts  of  expedients  to  get  rid  of  the  intolerable  pain. 
It  will  refuse  its  work,  or  run  away,  or  throw  itself 
down,  or  rear  up,  or  do  anything  or  everything  in  its 
desperation,  and  the  brute  on  its  back  or  on  the  coach- 
box knows  no  other  remedy  for  it  than  "  to  flog  the  sulk 
out  of  him,"  whereas  the  whole  thing  is  probably  the 
result  of  bad  bitting  and  bridling.* 

Many  young  horses,  too,  have  been  prematurely 
blinded  by  undue  pressure  on  the  glands  in  question, 
between  which  and  the  eye  there  is  an  intimate  connect- 

*  Why  should  not  corporal  punishment  be  inflicted  on  those  who 
disgrace  themselves  and  our  common  humanity  by  ill-treating  ani- 
mals? It  would  be  the  nearest  possible  approach  to  retributive  jus- 
tice, and  much  more  effectual  than  fine  or  imprisonment. 


The  Neck,  the  Head,  etc.  13 1 

ion,  both  by  the  absorbent  vessels  and  the  nerves.  We 
sometimes  find  the  glands  affected  on  both  sides,  and 
just  as  frequently  only  on  one.  The  horse  will,  in  this 
case,  exhibit  what  may  be  termed  one-sided  restiveness, 
bending  and  cantering  perfectly  willingly  on  the  one 
hand,  and  refusing  more  or  less  obstinately  on  the  other. 
We  can  perfectly  recollect  the  case  of  a  remount  where 
both  horse  and  rider,  excellent  tempered,  willing  crea- 
tures, had  been  tortured  for  months,  until  casually  pass- 
ing by  we  saw  from  a  distance  of  fifty  yards,  by  the 
shape  of  the  horse's  head,  which  was  very  prominent, 
what  the  matter  really  was  ;  on  inspection  there  was 
found  a  regular  necklace  of  swollen  and  highly  sensitive 
glands,  especially  on  the  one  side. 

All  these  peculiarities  of  formation  miist  be,  therefore, 
taken  into  account  when  we  set  about  bitting  or  break- 
ing-in  horses,  and  many  of  those  who  take  this  little 
book  into  their  hands  will  be  able  to  call  to  mind  in- 
stances that  came  within  their  own  observation  tending 
to  confirm  most  entirely  what  is  here  stated,  and  some 
will,  no  doubt,  have  cause  to  regret  that  they  did  not 
study  this  subject  more  accurately  before  they  set  about 
horse-breaking. 

We  now  pass  on  to  the  other  parts  of  the  exterior  of 
the  horse's  head  that  have  to  do  with  the  matter  in  hand. 
On  referring  to  Plate  I.,  exhibiting  the  internal  frame- 
work and  the  external  contours  of  the  horse,  the  reader 
will  perceive,  on  looking  to  the  head,  that  tlie  osseous 
or  bony  parts  of  this  organ  are  covered  very  unequally 
by  the  soft  parts — the  muscles,  skin,  membranes,  bul- 
bous roots  of  the  hair  and  beard,  fat,  etc. — in  fact,  what 
are  usually  called  the  integuments  ;  the  bone  has,  more- 
over, sharp  edges  on  the  under  surface  of  the  lower  jaw, 
and  a  certain  portion  of  the  nose  consists  of  cartilage,  as 
may  be  seen  from  the  Plate  already  referred  to.  The 
practical  importance  of  all  this  depends  on  the  different 


132  Bits  and  Bitting. 

degrees  of  sensibility  to  pressure  tliat  result  from  these 
varieties  of  conformation  ;  for  instance,  the  lower  lip  is 
covered  w^ith  a  very  thick  skin,  underneath  which  lie 
the  roots  of  the  beard,  fat  and  membrane,  and  this  struc- 
ture is  continued  up  into  a  certain  depression  under  the 
chin,  known  as  the  chin-groove,  and  called  by  the  Ger- 
mans the  curb-groove  i^kinnkettciigrube).  Now  the 
portion  of  bone  immediately  beneath  the  thick  and  not 
very  sensitive  skin  of  the  chin-groove  is  flat  and  rounded 
off  in  all  directions,  being,  in  fact,  that  point  where  the 
two  branches  of  the  jaw  begin  to  unite  together  ;  and  if 
a  flat  curb-chain,  for  instance,  which  has  a  proper  width, 
act  in  this  groove,  a  considerable  amount  of  pressure 
may  be  applied  without  causing  any  very  unpleasant 
sensation  to  the  horse. 

But  if  we  pass  our  finger  up  out  of  this  groove  toward 
the  angle  of  the  jaw,  we  immediately  find  that  both  the 
character  of  the  bone  and  that  of  the  skin  covering  it 
have  become  very  much  changed  ;  the  former  has  got 
sharp,  hard  edges,  and  the  latter,  being  no  longer  fur- 
nished with  beard,  will  be  found  to  be  thin,  and  very 
sensitive  ;  so  that  a  very  slight  pressure  of  this  thin  skin 
on  the  sharp  edges  of  bone  causes  very  considerable 
pain.  We  shall  presently  see  that  no  horse  can  be  prop- 
erly bitted  unless  these  peculinrities  be  borne  in  mind 
and  due  allowance  made  for  them. 

As  to  the  cartilage  of  the  nose,  it  is  of  importance  to 
recollect  what  we  are  pulling  atwhen  w^e  put  a  cavesson 
on  a  young  horse  ;  the  point  at  which  the  bone  ceases 
and  the  cartilage  commences  is  especially  sensitive  and 
liable  to  injury.  A  cavesson  is  a  most  admirable  instru- 
ment for  those  who  know  how  to  use  it  ;  but,  most  fre- 
quently, it  is  like  putting  a  sharp  razor  in  the  hands  of  a 
madman  to  let  an  ignorant  or  half-taught  rider  catch 
hold  of  the  lounge.  Many  a  young  horse  has  been  spav- 
ined by  an  angry  drag  at  his  nose  with  this  very  power- 


The  Nech^  the  Head^  etc.  1 33 

fill  instrument — a  good  illustration,  by  the  way,  of  the 
lever  action  of  the  horse's  neck  on  his  hind  legs. 

The  interior  of  the  horse's  mouth  is  the  object  that 
next  demands  our  attention,  but  there  is  only  a  certain 
portion  of  it  with  which  we  have  here  to  do.  It  is  easy 
to  perceive,  on  looking  at  a  horse's  mouth  in  and  out- 
side, that  the  lower  jaw  consists  of  two  flat,  irregularly 
triangular  cheek-bones,  whose  anterior  branches  form 
a  groove  or  channel  in  which  the  animal's  tongue  lies, 
enclosed  toward  its  root  between  the  two  rows  of  molar 
or  grinder  teeth,  further  forward  by  those  portions  of  the 
jaw  that  lie  between  the  point  where  the  molar  teeth 
cease  and  the  incisors  or  cutting  teeth  commence,  known 
generally  as  the  ba7's,  and  on  the  lower  portion  of  which 
the  tusks  are  to  be  found  in  male  animals ;  the  channel 
being  closed  in  front  by  the  incisors,  and  the  tongue  thus 
fenced  from  injury  on  all  sides. 

The  bit,  of  whatever  kind  it  may  be,  coming  to  be  laid 
somezvhere  on  the  bars,  and  across  the  tongue,  these  are 
the  most  important  parts  of  the  mouth  to  be  acquainted 
with.  With  the  snaffle  the  portion  of  the  bar  exposed 
to  pressure  varies  according  to  the  pull  on  the  reins  ; 
with  a  regular  bit  furnished  with  a  curb,  this  should  not 
be  the  case  ;  in  fact,  rational  bitting  demands  that  the 
action  of  the  bit  should  be  confined  exclusively  to  a  cer- 
tain point  on  each  side,  and  it  will  be  shown  farther  on 
that  the  bit  cannot  act  properly  on  any  other  point  than 
this  one. 

We  have  a  rule  of  thumb  in  this  country  for  deter- 
mining the  place  of  the  bit — namely,  at  a  certain  height 
above  the  tusk  ;  but  as  mares  and  even  many  geldings 
have  no  tusks,  this  is  a  very  clumsy  method,  which  is 
supplemented  in  practice  by  hanging  the  bit  in  the 
horse's  mouth  nearly  as  high  as  the  angles  of  the  lips 
will  allow  it  to  go.  This  is  about  equally  wise  as  it 
would  be  to  put  the  lock  of  a  gun  somewhere  near  th« 
12 


134  ^/Vi'  a7id  Bitting. 

vent — an  Inch  or  two  higher  or  lower  does  not  matter 
As  far  as  the  bit  itself  is  concerned,  half  an  inch,  or  even 
a  fidl  inch,  higher  or  lower,  would  not  make  much  dif- 
ference in  its  action  ;  but,  as  we  shall  presentl}^  see,  the 
curb  has  one  fixed  position  in  the  chin-groove,  and  this 
governs  the  whole  arrangement. 

There  are  three  dimensions  of  the  interior  of  the  horse's 
mouth  which  must  be  accurately  ascertained  before  at- 
tempting to  fit  him  with  a  proper  bit,  in  addition  to  cer- 
tain details  connected  with  the  tongue.  The  first,  and 
a  very  important  one,  is  tJie  transversal  width  of  the 
mouthy  from  side  to  side,  measured  at  the  same  height 
as  the  chin-groove.,  and  including  the  thickness  of  the 
lips — that  is  to  say,  from  the  point  a?,  fig.  ii,  to  the  cor- 
responding point  at  the  oft^side.*  This  gives  the  width 
of  the  mouth-piece,  which  must  be  made  to  fit  exactly, 
as,  if  too  narrow,  the  lips  are  subject  to  injury  and  their 
being  displaced  so  as  to  cover  the  bars,  thereby  neutral- 
izing the  action  of  the  whole  instrument ;  whereas,  if  too 
wide,  it  slips  from  side  to  side  and  displaces  what  is 
termed  the  port — the  curved  portion  of  the  mouth-piece 
intended  to  moderate  the  pressure  on  the  tongue — from 
its  i^roper  position  :  it  also  determines  the  length  of  the 
curb.  The  second  dimension  is  the  width  of  the  cha?i- 
nel  in  which  the  tongue  lies,  or  the  distance  between  the 
two  bars  internally,  wdiich  determines  how  much  of  the 
mouth-piece  may  be  allowed  for  the  port ;  the  remainder 
must  be  reserved  for  the  action  on  the  bars. 

The  third  dimension  is  what  we  term  the  height  of 
the  bars — that  is  to  say,  the  distance  between  a  straight 
edge  supposed  to  rest  on  the  upper  surface  of  the  bars 
at  d^  fig.  II,  as  above,  and  another  straight  edge  placed 
exactly  parallel  to  it,  and  touching  the  undermost  point 
of  the  chin-groove — mathematically  speaking,  the  tan- 

*  The  proper  mode  of  ascertaining  all  these  dimensions  accuratelj 
will  be  stated  farther  on. 


The  Neck,  the  Head,  etc.  135 

gent  to  the  cun-e  formed  by  the  groove.  This  latter 
dimension — the  height  of  the  bars — is,  perhaps,  the  most 
important  of  all,  because  all  the  remaining  dimensions 
of  the  bit  must  be  deduced  from  it. 

The  width  of  the  mouth  is,  as  may  be  supposed,  a 
very  variable  quantity,  depending  on  the  breed  and  size 
of  the  horse.  Nevertheless,  Lieutenant-Colonel  von 
Oeynhausen,*  who  has  had  occasion  to  measure  the 
mouths  of  a  very  great  number  and  variety  of  horses, 
says,t  that  with  the  great  majority  of  horses  of  the  smaller 
medium  size,  15. i  to  15.3  hands  high,  their  dimension 
amounts  to  4  inches.  With  very  small  and  very  light 
horses  one  finds  occasionally  3!  inches  ;  the  great  ma- 
jority of  good-sized  saddle-horses,  15.3  to  16.2  hands, 
have  4^  inches,  and  some  very  large  ones  go  to  4^ 
inches  ;  while  5  inches  is  only  to  be  found  amongst  very 
heavy  draught  animals  ;  and  on  reducing  these  to  Eng- 
lish measures  we  have  4.148,  3.889,  4.407,  4.767  and 
5.185  English  inches. 

Our  own  experience,  which  has  been  considerable, 
though  not  to  be  mentioned  in  comparison  with  Von 
Oeynhausen's,  confirms  this  very  accurately  ;  and  on 
referring  to  old  pocket-books  devoted  to  notices  of  this 
kind,  we  find  that,  out  of  some  400  horses  belonging  to 
certain  squadrons  of  light  cavalry,  measured  some  eight 
or  nine  years  ago,  the  width  of  the  mouth  was  for  the 
smaller  ones  exactly  4  English  inches,  and  for  nearly 
the  whole  of  the  remainder  4.2  inches,  one  or  two  only 
reaching  4.3  inches.  A  great  number  of  bits  were  put 
down  for  alteration  as  being  a  half  to  one  inch  too  wide, 
and  some  thirty  or  forty  went  to  the  heap  of  old  iron, 
as  being  utterly  useless  from  their  immense  size.  Some 
ofiicers  will,  perhaps,  smile  at  this  as  a  piece  of  pedan- 

*  Of  the  Austrian  army — perhaps  the  most  learned  man  living  in 
the  matter  of  horse-flesh,  and  the  autiior  of  several  admirable  works, 
t  "  Zaumungs  Lehre,"  p.  19. 


136  Bits  a?ul  Bitting, 

try  ;  but  if  they  had  witnessed  the  results  obtained,  they 
would  probably  adopt  the  same  plan.  As  it  is,  let  any 
cavalry  captain  in  the  British  service  take  the  trouble 
of  ascertaining,  which  he  may  easily  do,  how  many 
bits  in  his  troop  are  half  an  inch,  a  full  inch,  or  per- 
haps still  more,  too  wide,  he  will  probably  then  find 
a  clue  to  many  little  annoyances  he  meets  with  during 
drill. 

The  width  of  the  channel  in  which  the  tongue  lies 
always  bears  a  certain  proportion  to  the  height  of  the 
bar,  measured  as  above  described  ;  we  must,  therefore, 
take  this  latter  in  the  first  instance. 

Lieutenant-Colonel  von  Oeynhausen  says  that  the 
height  of  the  bars  is  if  inches*  with  the  very  great  ma- 
jority of  horses,  and  that  it  is  very  unusual  to  find  it 
either  more  or  less.  The  author  has  certainly  never 
found  bars  that  exceeded  1.8  English  inches  in  height, 
but  he  has  seen  some  that  were  less — perhaps  about  two 
to  three  per  cent,  of  the  horses  he  has  had  to  do  with. 
Now  this  is  a  very  important  dimension,  because  the 
upper  bar  of  the  bit  should  never  exceed  the  height  of 
the  bar  of  the  horse's  mouth — why,  shall  be  made  clear 
in  another  chapter;  notwithstanding  which,  it  is  only 
necessary  to  go  into  any  saddler's  or  bit-maker's  shop 
to  satisfy  oneself  that  a  very  large  proportion  of  bits, 
even  of  those  intended  for  saddle-horses,  are  constructed 
in  total  defiance  of  this  rule,  and  calculated  for  animals 
that  have  much  higher  bars,  wherever  they  are  to  be 
found. 

But  if  there  is  very  great  uniformity  in  the  absolute 
height  of  the  bars,  there  is,  on  the  other  hand,  a  very 
great  diversity  in  their  shape  and  texture,  some  being 
flat-topped  and  broad — others,  again,  presenting  a  ridge- 
like surface  ;  some  also  spongy,  soft  and  comparatively 
devoid  of  feeling,  while  others  appear  firmer,  finer  and 
*  Equal  exactly  tc  1.81  English  inches. 


The  Neck,  the  Head,  etc,  137 

more  sensitive — all  this  exercising  an  immense  influ- 
ence on  the  bitting. 

The  width  of  the  channel  for  the  tongue,  or  lingual 
canal,  as  the  anatomists  would  say,  is  pretty  nearly 
always  three-fourths  of  the  height  of  the  bars ;  and  this 
being  very  constantly  1.8  inches,  the  other  will  be  found 
to  be  about  ij  inches  of  our  English  measurement, 
which  gives  us  the  dimension  of  the  maximum  zvidth 
of  the  port  of  a  bit,  where  there  is  one  ;  because,  sup- 
posing the  mouthpiece  to  have  exactly  the  proper  width, 
if  the  port  be  made  w^ider  than  the  lingual  canal,  its 
corners  will  come  on  to  the  bars  of  the  horse's  mouth 
and  produce  intolerable  pain,  wliich,  once  for  all,  is 
wholly  inconsistent  with  good  bitting  ;  and  this  is  pre- 
cisel}'  the  reason  why  it  is  of  so  great  importance  that 
the  width  of  the  bit  should  coincide  so  accuratel}'^  with 
that  of  the  horse's  mouth  ;  as,  if  it  be  too  wide,  and  a 
port  exists,  every  pull  of  the  rein  will  be  sure  to  bring 
its  angles  into  painful  contact  with  the  bars  on  the  one 
side  or  the  other. 

The  tongue  itself  is  what  we  have  next  to  direct  our 
attention  to.  This  organ  will  be  found  to  vary  very 
much  both  in  thickness  and  in  texture.  It  some  horses 
it  just  fills  its  own  canal  neatl}',  rising  toward  its  axis 
in  a  gentle  curve,  whose  summit  is  two-tenths  or  three- 
tenths  of  an  inch  above  the  level  of  the  bars  ;  in  others 
it  seems  much  too  thick  and  fleshy  for  the  interior  of 
the  mouth,  and  projects  in  all  directions.  Now  the 
volume  of  the  tongue  is  a  matter  of  very  great  import- 
ance, because  the  action  of  the  mouthpiece  is  divided 
between  this  organ  and  the  bars  of  the  mouth  ;  and  the 
great  nicety  in  bitting  is  practically  to  determine  for 
each  individual  horse  how  much  of  the  lever  action  is 
to  fall  on  the  tongue  and  how  much  on  the  bars. 

We  started  with  the  proposition  that  lightness  or 
heaviness  in  the  rider's  hand  dependfe  mainly  on  the 
12* 


138  Bits  a7id  Bitting, 

degree  of  equilibrium  that  the  horse  may  have  attained  ; 
but  the  reader  will  perceive  that  v^'hat  is  called  softness 
or  hardness  of  mouth  must  depend,  to  a  certain  extent, 
on  the  dimensions  of  the  bit  corresponding  accurately 
with  the  interior  conformation  of  this  organ.  The  most 
perfectly-adapted  bit  will  not  convert  a  raw  remount  at 
once  into  a  trained  horse  or  give  him  a  proper  carriage 
and  feeling — all  this  is  done  gradually  with  the  snaffle  ; 
but  when  the  horse  has  once  acquired  the  carriage  and 
the  degree  of  feeling  that  may  be  required,  then  no 
pains  should  be  spared  in  bitting  him  correctly — other- 
wise all  the  previous  labor  is  lost. 

And  this  brings  us  to  a  very  difficult  and  very  im- 
portant point.  Each  style  of  riding,  to  use  a  common 
expression — or  everv  particular  kind  of  service  that  may 
be  demanded  of  a  horse,  to  use  a  more  correct  one — • 
demands  a  corresponding  variety  of  carriage  and  degree 
of  feeling,  and  consequently  of  bitting.  On  the  three 
older  continents  we  find  the  following  styles  predomi- 
nant:  School-riding,  as  a  preparation  for  the  circus  or 
for  military  purposes,  and  what  may  be  called  natural 
riding.  What  we  understand  by  this  latter  is  not  how 
the  farmer  jogs  to  market  with  a  sack  of  wheat  behind 
his  saddle,  but  the  methods  of  riding  adopted  and 
transferred  from  generation  to  generation  among  those 
nations  or  large  communities  who  are  compelled  to  live 
on  horseback,  either  in  self-defence  or  to  gain  their 
existence,  or  for  both  reasons.  This  is,  in  fact,  un- 
cultivated military  equitation  ;  and  the  purely  empirical 
principles  on  which  it  is  founded  are  such  that  they 
readily  accommodate  themselves  to  the  scientific  prin- 
ciples of  school-riding,  with  which  it,  however,  only 
comes  in  contact  in  the  east  of  Europe,  if  we  except, 
perhaps,  our  own  Indian  possessions  and  Algeria. 

Cossacks,  Circassians,  Hungarians,  Poles — these  are 
the  European  and  Western  Asian  representatives  of  the 


The  Nech,  the  Hcad^  etc.  139 

style  of  riding  alluded  to  here.  Thev  furnish  its  best 
and  m('St  easily-formed  light  cavalries,  heavy  cavalry 
having  been  originally  the  parent,  and  subsequentlv  the 
pupil,  of  the  school  or  manege.  But  in  the  west  of 
Europe  this  nursery  for  light  cavalry  has  long  ceased  to 
exist.  Perhaps  the  latest  remnants  of  it  were  the  Bor- 
der-riders on  the  Scotch  and  English  marches.  Indeed, 
the  few  civilian  riders  that  were  to  be  found  in  France, 
Germany,  Italy,  Belgium,  Holland,  etc.,  till  within 
comparativel}'  few  years,  were  riding-masters'  pupils 
of  one  kind  or  another ;  and  it  M'as  only  in  the  British 
Islands  that  a  numerous  class  of  natural  riders  was  to 
be  found.  The  Continental  riders  have  had,  therefore, 
all  more  or  less  of  a  military  or  school  tvpe.  There 
existed  until  recently  only  one  general  style  of  riding, 
saddling,  bitting,  carriage  and  feeling  among  them 
varying,  however,  very  much  as  to  correctness  in  dif- 
ferent countries.  Of  late  years,  no  doubt,  a  great 
change  has  taken  place  in  this  respect,  and  what  is 
called  English  ?'idi??g  has  been  more  or  less  success- 
fully imitated  or  caricatured  in  various  parts  of  the 
Continent. 

Now  the  English  type  of  riding  has  been  formed  by 
the  national  sports  of  racing  and  hunting,  both  of  which 
require  vehement,  straightforward  riding  in  the  first 
instance,  and  onlv  a  certain  amount  of  handiness  or 
dexterity  in  turning;  and  it  is,  therefore,  neither  desir- 
able, nor  indeed  practicable,  to  give  either  the  neck  or 
head  of  the  horse  anything  like  the  same  position  that 
other  styles  of  riding  admit  of  or  require.  Therefore  the 
system  of  bitting  must  be  different  to  a  certain  extent. 

In  fact,  whenever  it  is  possible,  the  jockey  prefers 
riding  his  horse  with  a  snaffle,  and  the  best  hunting- 
riders  seem  to  be  of  the  same  opinion  ;  and  when  they 
do  use  a  curbed  bit,  it  is  most  generally  either  as  a  sort 
of  reser\'e  for  particular  emergencies,  or  in  combination 


140  Bits  and  Bitting, 

with  a  bridoon  (using  all  four  reins),  by  means  of  which 
the  action  of  the  bit  is  very  much  weakened.  There 
are,  however,  a  great  number  of  racers  and  hunters 
whose  tempers,  or  desire  "  to  go,"  require  the  perma- 
nent use  of  a  curbed  bit,  and  hitting  oft^the  proper  form 
and  size  of  this  is  sometimes  a  matter  of  great  nicety ; 
for  the  bit  that  will  prevent  bolting  and  enable  the  jock 
to  ride  a  waiting  race  may  interfere  with  the  horse's 
starting  freely,  or  "  laying  himself  out  when  called 
upon."  No  doubt  the  jockey  that  has  a  very  close  and 
steady  seat  and  places  himself  on  the  riglit  part  of  his 
horse's  back,  will  be  able  to  ride  almost  every  liorse 
with  a  snaffle,  because,  being  independent  of  the  reins 
for  his  scat,  his  hand  is  light;  and  this  is  the  secret  of 
snaffle-riding.  Still,  it  is  often  a  matter  of  convenience 
or  necessity  to  use  a  curbed  bit,  and  it  is  therefore  im- 
portant even  for  the  race-rider  to  know  exactly  on  what 
principle  its  action  depends. 

Again,  with  the  hunting  man,  the  bit  that  enables 
him  to  hold  a  runaway  may  interfere  with  the  horse  in 
jumping.  If  he  be  not  a  mere  rein-and-stirrup  rider, 
he  can  no  doubt  get  on  best  with  a  snaffle  ;  but  many 
a  man  does  not  like  the  labor  of  holding  a  pulling 
horse,  and  therefore  prefers  a  bit.  The  difficulty  a 
good  rider  that  prefers  the  bit  will  have  to  contend  with 
is  to  avoid  the  getting  too  powerful  a  bit .^  ox  the  putting 
a  suitable  one  into  a  part  of  the  horse's  mouth  where  it 
must  act  contrary  to  his  intention.  Well,  what  we 
profess  to  show  is,  that  light  bits  accuj-ately  Jilted  are 
more  to  be  relied  upon  than  the  most  atrocious  instru- 
ments of  torture  ever  invented,  and  of  which  but  too 
many  are  in  daily  use. 

But  we  must,  in  justice  to  ourselves,  say  here,  once 
for  all,  that  we  know  of  nothing  that  can  be  done  in  the 
way  of  bitting  for  the  man  that  depends  for  his  seat  on 
his  reins — or  on  his  stirrups,  which  comes  to  the  same 


The  Ncck^  the  Head^  etc.  141 

thing.  The  rider  with  a  really  good,  steady  seat  can 
jump  his  horse  with  precisely  the  same  bitting  that 
suits  the  school-rider  or  cavalry  soldier,  if  he  simply 
take  a  very  long  hold  of  the  curb-rein  with  his  bridle 
(left)  hand,  and  use  the  right  hand  in  front  of  it  so  long 
as  his  horse  requires  being  "  kept  straight,"  and  then 
the  moment  the  horse  rises  to  the  leap,  takes  the  latter 
away,  leaving  the  horse  to  jump  altogether  without 
any  feeling  on  the  reins,  which  will  ensure  his  landing 
on  all  four  feet  instead  of  two  only  ;  but  this  requires  a 
seat.*  And  it  is  precisely  for  this  reason  that  it  is  ab- 
surd to  talk  of  cavalry  and  hunting  riding  being  antago- 
nistic. The  latter,  if  well  done,  confers  boldness  and 
vehemence  in  charging  and  a  disregard  for  common 
obstacles  ;  but  it  should  not  be  overdone  or  caricatured, 
for  that  would  lead  to  bad  skirmishing  and  slow  rally- 
ing after  the  charge,  by  means  of  which  great  eflbrts 
of  gallantry  are  frequently  neutralized  and  converted 
into  disasters,  of  which  it  would  be  easy  enough  to  cite 
instances. 

For  the  road-rider  good  and  careful  bitting  must 
always  have  an  especial  value,  restiveness  being  but  too 
often  the  consequence  of  the  contrary  ;  handiness  and 
perfect  control  being  an  essential  to  safety,  and  great 
speed  not  being  required,  therefore  the  roadster  not 
only  may  but  must  be  better  "  set  up"  and  more  finely 
mouthed  than  the  hunter.  Here,  too,  the  grand  thing 
is  a  seat  independent  of  reins  and  stirrups,  without 
which  the  best  bitting  will  be  of  little  value. 

What  should  the  carriage  of  the  cavalry  horse  be? 
for  this  is  what  determines  the  bitting.  It  must  favor  the 
short,  sharp  turnings  and  voltes  of  the  school  without 
impeding  the  straightforward  rush  of  the  hunter  ;  there- 

*This  system  has  been  practiced  in  Hanover  for  the  cavalry  with 
great  success,  according  to  General  von  Dachenhausen,  but  we  our- 
selves used  it  many  years  since,  and  without  being  aware  of  this  fact. 


142  Bits  and  Bltti-Hg. 

fore  the  adjustment  of  the  weight  and  the  bittinof  must 
be  such  as  to  enable  the  horse  to  pass  from  the  one 
style  to  the  other,  when  required,  with  ease  to  itself 
and  the  rider.  The  rule  of  the  manege  is,  that  the 
frontal  line  of  the  head  (forehead  and  nose)  should  be 
perpendicular  to  the  horizon,  the  neck  being  brought 
up  so  that  the  mouth,  and  consequently  the  pull  on  the 
reins,  should  be  on  a  line  with  the  horse's  back,  so  as 
to  allow  of  the  latter  acting  directly  on  the  centre  of 
motion.  There  are,  however,  but  few  horses  so  per- 
fectly formed  in  every  respect  as  to  be  able  to  assume 
this  carriage  and  maintain  it  in  all  their  faces.  We 
have  already  pointed  out  the  obstacles  likely  to  arise 
from  the  conformation  of  the  neck,  head  and  throat, 
and  we  may  say  that  not  one  troop-horse  in  a  thousand 
is  capable  of  being  brought  to  this  standard  of  carriage, 
if  it  were  necessary,  which  is  by  no  means  the  case. 
We  must  therefore  take  a  lower  one,  or  rather  one 
more  universally  applicable,  and  perfectly  sufiicient  for 
the  object  in  view.  No  better  rule  can  perhaps  be  laid 
down  than  that  of  Lieutenant-Colonel  von  Oeynhausen, 
who  says  :*  "  I  consider,  as  a  general  rule,  that  po- 
sition of  the  head  to  be  best  with  which  the  horse's 
paces  are  clean  andyr^e"  (to  be  clean  they  must  be 
equable  and  their  rhythm  perfect;  to  be  free  they  must 
be  made  without  apparent  effort  or  marks  of  distress)  ; 
'"'  which  allows  him  to  turn  willingly  and  without  an  effort 
or  disturbance  of  his  pace  ;  to  diminish  or  increase  this 
without  hesitation  ;  to  rein  back,  preserving  a  proper 
degree  of  feeling,  and  immediately  to  advance  again 
freely  if  called  upon." 

Now,  although  a  star-gazer  with  a  ewe-neck,  or  a 

borer  that  can  only  go  with  his  nose  close  to  the  ground, 

are  totally  unfit  for  military  purposes,  w^e  must  take 

average  horses,  and  allow  one  to  poke  out  his  nose  a 

*  "  Zaumungs  Lehre,"  p.  10. 


The  Neck^  the  Head^  etc.  143 

little  more  than  another  ;  nor  can  we  always  help  its 
coiling  up  its  head  and  neck  like  a  snail  so  long  as  they 
go  clean  and  free — which  is  precisely  what  Baucher's 
encapuchonne  carriage  of  the  head  and  neck  does  not 
favor ;  but  the  higher  we  get  both  head  and  neck  with- 
out sacrificing  cleanness  and  freedom  of  pace  the 
better,  if  for  no  other  reason  than  that  there  always 
must  be  something  in  front  of  the  military  saddle  which 
keeps  the  bridle-hand  at  a  certain  distance  above  the 
horse's  withers,  close  down  to  which  the  civilian  rider 
can  easily  place  it.  Carriage  is,  however,  not  the  result 
of  bitting  alone  ;  it  depends,  as  we  have  already  shown 
in  Part  I.,  on  a  judicious  svstem  of  saddling,  packing 
and  riding,  the  bitting  forming  "/<?  couronnement  de 
Vedljice^^  without  which  the  remainder  is  of  compara- 
tively little  use  to  the  soldier,  because  he  must  ride 
altogether  with  one  hand.,  and  he  requires  his  whole 
body,  from  the  hip  upward,  with  the  exception  of  this 
one  hand,  for  the  use  of  his  weapons. 

Good  bitting,  saddling,  packing  and  riding  are  what 
render  cavalry  available  and  durable  ;  they  secure  effi- 
ciency, and  therefore  economy  ;  of  course  they  cannot  en- 
sure judicious  handling  of  the  arm,  nor  affect  the  morale 
of  the  soldier  beyond  giving  him  a  sense  of  security  and 
power,  which  is,  however,  very  valuable. 

The  reader  will  perceive,  from  the  digression  into 
which  we  have  been  led  here,  that  the  question  of  bit- 
ting cannot  be  considered  separately  from  those  of  dis- 
tribution of  weight,  carriage  and  action  ;  and  it  was  in 
order  to  avoid  erroneous  impressions  on  this  very  point 
that  we  have  thought  it  best  to  defer  up  to  this  moment 
all  mention  of  those  peculiarities  of  the  interior  construc- 
tion of  the  horse's  mouth  which,  taken  together,  consti- 
tute, so  far  as  this  organ  itself  is  concerned,  what  is 
called  a  hard  or  a  soft  mouth. 

There  are  two  ways  of  expressing  what  a  soft  mouth 


144  ^^^^  ^^^^^  Bilthig. 

is  ;  we  may  either  say  this  horse  goes  well  on  a  light 
bit — which  may  be  mainly  a  consequence  of  good  car- 
riage, temper,  etc. — or,  we  may  say,  a  light  bit  will  prob- 
ably suit  this  horse  best,  because  it  has  a  thin  tongue^ 
high  and  sharp  bars^  a  wide  tongue-channel  and  Jine 
lips.  But,  in  truth,  the  relative  thickness  or  thinness 
of  the  tongue  is  the  main  point  to  be  considered,  be- 
cause, as  has  been  already  pointed  out,  the  height  of  the 
bars  is  very  nearly  the  same  in  all  horses,  and  the  width 
of  the  tongue-channel  always  bears  a  certain  proportion 
to  it.  No  doubt  the  bars  have,  in  some  instances,  a  flat 
and  in  others  a  sharp  or  convex  upper  surface,  which, 
together  with  the  greater  or  less  fleshiness  of  the  lips, 
makes  a  great  difference  ;  but  in  the  end  it  comes  to 
this.  Does  the  tongue  fill  up  its  channel  merely  to  the 
brim,  projecting  only  a  few  lines  over  the  surface  of  the 
bars,  and  therefore  permitting  the  mouth-piece  to  exert 
a  certain  degree  of  pressure  on  the  latter?  And  this  we 
would  call  a  naturally  soft  mouth,  so  far  as  interior  con- 
formation goes. 

A  hard  mouth,  on  the  contrary,  will  be  one  in  which 
we  find  a  thick,  fleshy  tongue,  not  only  totally  filling  up 
its  channel,  but  protruding  over  it,  and  rising  high  above 
the  level  of  the  bars,  which  makes  the  former  appear 
narrow  and  the  latter  low,  whatever  their  real  dimen- 
sions may  be  ;  and  if  to  this  be  superadded  a  flat  surface 
to  the  bars  and  thick,  fleshy  lips,  we  may  forthwith  set 
this  down  as  a  case  in  which  an  ordinary  mouth-piece 
will  exert  its  pressure  mainly  on  the  tongue  and  lips, 
conveying  to  the  rider's  hand  the  dull  feeling  of  pulling 
against  lead. 

As  a  general  rule,  well-bred  horses  have  the  first- 
named  conformation  of  mouth,  and  common  brutes  the 
contrary  one  ;  but  it  by  no  means  follows  from  this  that 
the  former  are  all  light  and  the  latter  all  heavy  in  the 
hand ;  for  the  most  aristocratic  animal  of  all,  the  Eng- 


The  Neck^  the  Hcad^  etc.  145 

Hsh  race-horse,  has  generally  a  good  tough  mouth  of  its 
own,  because  it  is  taught  from  earliest  infancy  to  lean 
on  the  bridle,  and  seek  a  fifth  foot  in  the  rider's  hand  ; 
whereas,  on  the  contrary,  we  often  find  a  perfectly  ple- 
beian brute,  with  a  tongue  that  overfills  its  mouth,  and 
everything  else  in  proportion,  not  only  extremely  sensi- 
tive to  the  action  of  the  bit,  but,  in  fact,  totally  averse  to 
its  contact — that  is  to  say,  "  behind  the  hand,"  because 
it  has  miserable,  flabby  muscles,  unstrung  tendons  and 
weak  hind  quarters.* 

All  this  tends  to  show  that  it  requires  a  considerable 
deal  of  judgment,  practical  knowledge  of  horses,  and  per- 
fect understanding  of  what  is  required  in  each  especial 
case,  to  enal)le  one  to  undertake  the  task  of  selecting 
and  fitting  bits  with  any  chance  of  success  ;  whereas  it 
is  a  matter  that  is  most  usually  entrusted  to  certain 
classes  of  individuals  who  possess  no  other  qualification 
than  the  habit  of  wearing  green  baize  aprons  or  nether 
garments  of  a  very  peculiar  description — viz.,  saddlers 
and  grooms. 

*  A  dishonest  horse-dealer  that  really  possesses  talent  will  always 
avoid  showing  you  a  horse  with   an  incipient  spavin  or  other  defect 
of  the  hind  legs  otherwise  than  on  the  lightest  possible  bridle:  three- 
fourths  of  these  arising  from  "savage  bitting." 
13  K 


CHAPTER   III. 

THE    CAVESSON — SNAFFLE — NOSEBAND — TRAINING- 
HALTEK RUNNING-REINS. 

THE  cavesson,  not  being  a  bit,  is  mentioned  here 
only  because  some  riders  are  in  the  habit  of  com- 
mencing the  handHng  of  young  horses  with  this  instru- 
ment, which,  although  most  useful  and  admirable  in  the 
hands  of  a  really  skillful  person,  is  equally  dangerous 
and  destructive  in  those  of  ignorant  and  brutal  horse- 
breakers.  If  a  young  horse  be  lounged,  it  may  be  well 
to  continue  the  use  of  the  cavesson  for  a  day  or  two  after 
the  operation  has  ceased,  putting  in  hand-reins  for  that 
purpose,  so  that  the  animal  may  be  gradually  accus- 
tomed to  the  snaffle  ;  but  it  is  a  great  mistake  to  con- 
tinue its  use  for  any  length  of  time  in  this  way,  because 
the  horse  learns  thereby  to  lean  into  the  rider's  hand, 
which  is  what  should  be  avoided  from  the  very  com- 
mencement. When  used  for  the  above  purpose,  the  ca- 
vesson should  have  its  nosepiece  buckled  just  low  enough 
to  rest  on  the  point  of  the  nose  just  above  where  the  car- 
tilage joins  the  bone,  but  particular  care  must  be  taken 
to  prevent  the  cheek-straps  injuring  the  eyes,  which  they 
are  very  liable  to  do. 

Of  all  instruments  employed  in  the  handling,  riding 
or  driving  of  horses,  the  common  smooth  snaffle  is  by  far 
the  best  and  most  generally  useful ;  it  is  that  by  means 
146 


The  Cavcsson^  Sfiaffle^  etc.  147 

of  which  the  highest  results  can  be  obtained,  wliilst,  on 
the  other  hand,  less  mischief  can  be  done  with  it  than 
with  any  other.  There  are  some  few  riders  whose  seat 
is  so  firm  and  hand  so  delicate  that  they  can  venture  on 
putting  a  curb-bit  at  once  into  a  horse's  mouth,  but  these 
are  rare  exceptions ;  and  although,  in  former  times,  it 
was  the  custom  to  bit  and  curb  the  cavalry  remount  at 
once  and  send  it  to  its  work,  especially  in  war-time,  this 
system,  which  produced  almost  as  many  restive  horses 
as  all  other  causes  put  together,  has  been  finally  aban- 
doned everywhere,  except  amongst  the  Orientals,  and 
the  greater  part  of  the  handling  is  now  done  on  the 
snaffle. 

The  great  value  of  the  snaffle  is,  that  by  its  use  the 
horse  acquires  confidence  and  insight  into  the  means  by 
which  the  rider  proposes  to  direct  its  motions,  and  that 
it  willingly  assumes  a  steady  and  regular  feeling,  the 
action  of  the  mouth-piece  being  gentle  and  capable  of 
gradation  ;  and,  in  consequence  of  its  acting  on  nearly 
the  same  part  of  the  mouth  as  the  curb-bit,  it  becomes  a 
much  better  preparative  for  the  latter  than  the  cavesson 
can  ever  be,  whilst  it  can  never  act  in  so  violent  a  manner 
as  either  the  one  or  the  other. 

It  is  precisely  for  this  reason  that  the  simplest  form  of 
snaffle — neither  too  long,  too  thin,  nor  too  much  curved, 
and  with  only  one  joint  in  the  middle — is  the  best;  but 
as  there  is  no  end  of  fincy  and  prejudice  about  various 
kinds  of  snaffles,  it  will  be  perhaps  well  to  see  into  the 
real  effect  of  some  of  those  varieties  of  form  and  dimen- 
sion that  are  so  much  relied  on  by  the  knowing  ones.  If 
the  snaffle  mouth-piece  were  simpl}^  two  straight  pieces 
of  iron  of  equal  thickness  throughout,  jointed  together 
in  the  middle,  its  whole  pressure  would,  with  most 
horses,  come  to  act  on  the  tongue  exclusively,  and  the 
base  of  the  mouth  remaining  untouched,  there  would  be, 
therefore,  scarcely  any  action.     To  avoid  this  inconve- 


148  Bits  and  Bitthig. 

nience,  it  is  usual  to  make  each  half  of  the  mouth-piece 
thicker  toward  the  cheeks,  and  tapering  oft'  finer  to  the 
joint  connecting  them,  by  which  means  a  portion  of  the 
pressure  is  transferred  from  the  tongue  to  the  bars  ;  and, 
in  addition  to  this,  they  may  be  slightly  curved,  which 
has  the  same  eftect.  Let  us  suppose  the  length  of  such 
a  snaffle  to  be  just  sufficient  to  allow  the  cheek-rings  to 
come  clear  of  the  lips  on  either  side,  and  we  shall  have 
nearly  the  whole  action  of  the  instrument  exerted  in  the 
same  direction  as  the  pull  on  the  reins — a  matter  of  no 
small  importance,  because  it  is  the  only  true  basis  for 
an  understanding  between  the  horse's  mouth  and  the 
rider's  hand. 

We  may  make  our  snaffle  very  thin  in  the  centre,  and 
very  thick  on  each  side,  but  we  scarcely  gain  anything 
in  power  by  so  doing,  because,  although  a  greater  amount 
of  action  is  transferred  from  the  tongue  to  the  bars,  the 
thick  portion  of  the  iron  acting  on  the  latter  produces 
very  little  impression  ;  this  variety  of  form  might,  how- 
ever, prove  useful  with  a  slight-built  horse  having  a  very 
thick  tongue. 

Another  plan  is  to  leave  the  thickness  of  the  iron  un- 
altered, but  increase  the  curvature  ;  or  to  increase  the 
length  of  the  whole  snaffle,  so  that  it  projects  an  inch  or 
more  at  each  side.  Now  either  of  these  plans  will,  no 
doubt,  increase  the  painful  action  on  the  bars  ;  the  latter 
especially,  much  practiced  by  Irish  horse-breakers,  if 
exaggerated,  will  convert  the  snaftie  into  an  instrument 
of  torture  ;  but  the  result  of  this  increased  action  is  in  a 
wrong  direction — it  ceases  to  be  a  fore-and-aft  pull,  and 
is  converted  into  a  pincer-like  twitch  on  the  lower  jaw, 
which  becomes  so  painful  that  the  horse  tries  to  get  the 
mouth-piece  on  his  teeth,  which  is  usually  resented  by 
sawing,  restiveness  being  the  most  common  result. 

Some  riders  have  recourse  to  a  double-jointed  snaffle, 
others,  again,  to  a  double  mouth-piece,  the  joints  being 


The  Cavcsson^  Snaffle^  etc.  149 

placed  right  and  left  of  the  centre  ;  but  these  two  forms 
produce  the  pincer-hke  twitch,  and  are,  therefore,  to  be 
avoided,  if  possible. 

There  is  one  abomination  that  cannot  be  sufficiently 
reprobated — namely,  a  snaffle  twisted  on  one  side  and 
plain  on  the  other,  the  pretence  for  using  it  being,  that 
the  horse  is  hard-mouthed  on  one  side.  Now  it  has  been 
already  pointed  out  that  this  disinclination  to  turn  to 
one  side  is  sometimes  produced  by  a  swollen  gland 
under  the  jaw,  or  by  a  narrowness  of  the  jaws  them- 
selves ;  and  when  anything  of  this  kind  is  the  cause,  it 
is  evidently  pure  brutality  to  apply  sheer  force.  But 
many  horses  dislike  turning — to  the  right,  for  instance — ■ 
where  no  local  impediment  of  this  kind  exists  ;  and  here 
it  will  be  found,  that  circling  in  trot  on  the  right  hand, 
first  of  all  very  wide,  and  gradually  narrowing  in,  the 
rider's  right  hand  directing  the  pull  of  its  rein  toward 
the  horse's  left  hind  leg^  whilst  his  left  liand  keeps  the 
horse's  head  and  neck  tip  to  the  proper  position,  is  a 
much  more  certain  and  also  humane  mode  of  attain- 
ing the  end  for  which  ignorant  riders  employ  the  one- 
sided twisted  snaffle. 

A  snaffle  twisted  on  both  sides  is  a  much  less  object- 
ionable instrument,  and  may  be  safely  used  by  a  well- 
tempered  and  judicious  rider  who  has  a  firm  seat ;  it 
should,  however,  be  scarcely  ever  necessary  to  resort  to 
this  or  any  of  the  above-mentioned  methods  of  increas- 
ing the  painful  action  of  what  should  be  as  nearly  as 
possible  a  painless  instrument,*  because  there  are  other 
and  better  means  of  attaining  the  same  object. 

Better  means,  because  they  are  more  durable  in  their 
effects,  although  they  may  require  more  time  in  the  first 

*  It  cannot  be  too  often  repeated,  that  the  first  object  to  be  attained 
in  handling  horses  is  to  gain  their  confidence,  and  to  lead  them  by 
d^gree5  to  an  understanding  of  the  rider's  wishes,  which  they  wil/ 
always  readily  fulfill,  if  they  are  able. 
13* 


150  Bits  and  Bitting. 

instance  ;  for,  apart  from  all  other  considerations,  there 
is  this  great  objection  to  all  the  contrivances  referred  to 
here,  that  when  you  take  them  out  of  the  horse's  mouth 
you  find  yourself  at  best  just  where  you  were  before, 
and  still  more  likely  not  nearly  so  well  oft',  because  the 
animal's  temper  will  have  suffered. 

In  the  great  majority  of  cases,  when  a  man  finds  that 
his  horse  lies  heavy  in  his  hand  with  a  plain,  smooth 
snaffle — in  fact,  when  he  cannot  hold  him — he  looks  out 
immediately  for  something  sharper — a  twisted  mouth- 
piece, or  some  contrivance  of  the  kind — and  seldom 
takes  the  trouble  to  examine  how  it  is  that  the  animal 
contrives  to  set  the  cold  iron  at  defiance.  If  he  did  so, 
he  would  generally  find  that  this  is  accomplished  by  get- 
ting it  out  of  its  proper  place  on  the  bars,  and  shifting  it 
up  to  the  thick  part  of  the  tongue,  which  the  horse  can 
do  only  when  there  is  nothing  to  prevent  his  opening 
his  mouth  as  wide  as  he  pleases  ;  for,  if  he  can  do  this,, 
he  can  always  set  the  rider  at  defiance.  In  former 
times  a  noseband  used  to  be  employed,  even  with  snaf- 
fles, for  the  purpose  of  preventing  this  ;  but  the  nose- 
band has  been  very  generally  abandoned,  except  on 
military  bridles  or  harness,  at  least  in  this  country. 

The  chief  reason  given  for  abolishing  the  noseband 
was,  that  it  was  supposed  to  interfere  with  the  horse's 
breathing,  especially  during  the  long-continued  gallops 
of  the  hunting-field,  etc.  ;  and  it  was  on  the  same  ac- 
count considered  to  be,  a  fo7'tiori,,  wholly  unfit  for  racing 
purposes.  This  was,  perhaps,  not  a  good  reason  for 
rejecting  it  altogether  during  the  first  handling  of  young 
horses,  as  it  would  have  been  easy  to  lay  it  aside  after- 
ward when  they  came  to  their  held  work  ;  but  the  truth 
is,  that  the  noseband  was  placed  so  high  up  above  the 
angles  of  the  horse's  mouth  that  it  could  not  prevent 
the  animal  opening  its  mouth  and  doing  what  it  pleased 
with  the  bit,  unless  it  was  buckled  so  tight  as  really  to 


The  Cavcsson^  Snaffle,,  etc.  151 

interfere  seriously  with  the  respiration,  even  at  the 
more  moderate  pace  of  a  trot  or  walk — besides  other 
imperfections,  to  which  allusion  shall  be  made  lower 
down.  This  was  long  a  stumbling-block  in  the  way  of 
the  rational  treatment  of  colts  and  fillies,  and  was  prob- 
ably what  led  indirectly  to  the  invention  of  various  in- 
struments of  torture  known  by  the  name  of  "  capital 
mouthpieces  ;"  but  this  difficulty  has  been  at  length  got 
over,  and  we  are  in  possession  of  a  contrivance  which 
enables  us  to  effect  what  the  old-fashioned  noseband 
never  could. 

This  is  the  training-halter  (Reithalfter),  invented,  we 
believe,  by  Lieutenant-Colonel  von  Oeynhausen,  of  the 
Austrian  cavalry,  or  at  least  introduced  by  him  into  the 
Central  School  of  Equitation  at  Vienna  several  years 
since.  To  understand  perfectly  the  great  value  of  this 
halter,  it  is  necessary  to  allude  to  one  more  disadvan- 
tage of  the  old-fashioned  noseband,  in  addition  to  those 
already  enumerated  ;  which  was,  that  when  the  reins  of 
the  snaffle  came  to  be  shortened,  the  cheekpieces  of  the 
headstall  bulged  out  to  the  right  and  left  up  to  the  point 
at  which  they  were  held  fast  by  the  noseband,  and 
being  stopped  there,  a  certain  proportion  of  the  pull  on 
the  reins  was  transferred  from  the  mouthpiece  to  the 
noseband,  where  it,  of  course,  was  wholly  inoperative  ; 
so  that  this  latter,  instead  of  promoting  the  action  of 
the  former,  actually  interfered  with  it,  making  the  horse 
lean  still  more  on  the  hand  than  hitherto. 

It  is  as  well  to  mention  here  that  the  method  now 
introduced  of  passing  snaffles,  used  for  draught-horses, 
through  rings  at  the  lower  end  of  the  cheekpieces,  in- 
stead of  buckling  them  on  directly  as  heretofore,  is 
grounded  on  the  same  principle — that  of  making  the 
action  of  the  mouthpiece  altogether  independent  of  the 
noseband. 

But  these  ring-snaffles  do  not,  of  course,  prevent  the 


152  Bits  and  Bitting, 

horse  opening  its  month  too  wide,  nor  can  the  old- 
fashioned  noseband  do  this  effectually  either  ;  the  train- 
ing-halter does  so  most  eflRciently  and  in  the  simplest 
manner.  It  consists  of  t\\  o  cheek-straps  whose  upper 
ends  are  made  fast  in  the  buckles  of  the  snaffle-head- 
stall.* These  cheek-straps  support,  by  means  of  two 
rings,  a  noseband  composed  of  three  pieces:  i.  The 
noseband  proper  ;  2.  A  strap  about  7  inches  long,  sewed 
into  the  ring  on  the  off  side  ;  and  3.  A  shorter  strap,  2 
to  3  inches  long,  and  terminated  by  a  buckle,  which  is 
sewed  into  the  ring  on  the  nearside.  The  cheek-straps 
are  buckled  into  the  headstall  outside,  so  that  the  nose- 
band comes  to  hang  below  the  rings  of  the  snaffle,  and 
the  two  back  straps  are  then  buckled  together,  so  that 
the  longer  one  comes  to  lie  in  the  chin-groove,  as  a  curb 
would  with  a  bit,  leaving,  of  course,  a  sufficient  play  to 
the  horse's  under  jaw  without  allowing  the  animal  to 
open  it  beyond  a  certain  distance,  and  thus  securing 
perfect  independence  to  the  mouthpiece,  and  permitting 
of  its  acting  in  the  proper  place  and  direction. 

It  must,  however,  be  well  understood  that  this  halter 
is  not  intended  to  be  permanently  employed  ;  its  great 
value  is,  that  it  enables  us,  by  preventing  the  young 
horse  from  escaping  the  action  of  a  light  snaffle  mouth- 
piece to  avoid  the  necessity  for  employing  sharp  ones ; 
in  fact,  all  violent  measures  are  thereby  rendered  un- 
necessary during  the  period  of  training  or  handling ; 
and  when  this  is  once  over,  we  may  lay  aside  our 
halter,  and  either  use  the  plain  snaffle  or  put  a  curbed 
bit  into  the  animal's  mouth,  which  has  been  by  this  very 
means  perfectly  prepared  for  either ;  and  that  this  is  a 
real  advantage  we  must  admit. t 

*It  is,  of  course,  necessary  for  this  purpose  that  there  should  be  a 
bcckle  on  each  side. 

tit  is  but  justice  to  confess  that  the  writer  of  these  lines  having 
become  acquainted  with  the  training-halter  when  he  was  an  old  rider, 
was  at  first  incredulous  as  to  its  value,  but  he  soon  became  a  convert. 


I 


The  Cavcsson.  Sna^c^  etc.  153 

ft  is  scarcely  necessary  to  remark  that  the  snaffle 
should  neither  be  pulled  up  too  high  in  the  horse's 
mouth,  nor  suffered  to  hang  down  so  low  as  to  interfere 
with  the  tusks  or  front  teeth  ;  its  proper  place  will  be 
about  one-fourth  of  an  inch  below  the  angle  of  the 
mouth  ;  and  in  this  position  a  plain,  smooth  mouth- 
piece, if  aided  in  its  action  by  the  training-halter,  will 
be  found  to  answer  every  purpose  and  afford  the  best 
possible  means  of  mouthing  young  animals.  Training 
race-horses  is  so  distinct  and  j^eculiar  a  branch  of  riding 
that  it  seems  almost  presumptuous  to  ot^er  even  a  sug- 
gestion on  the  subject ;  but  we  are  quite  certain  that 
the  halter  here  described  would  be  of  great  value  to 
trainers,  saving  them  much  trouble,  and  eventually 
diminishing  the  number  of  bolters  and  difficult  starters 
very  considerably,  and  thus  giving  many  a  horse  a  fairer 
chance  than  he  would  otherwise  have.  Of  course  it  is 
not  meant  that  the  halter  should  be  used  otherwise 
than  during  the  first  period  of  handling ;  in  actual 
running  it  would  interfere  too  much  with  the  animal's 
respiration. 

The  great  value  of  being  able  to  keep  the  horse's 
head  in  a  proper  position  has  been  frequently  dwelt 
upon  in  these  pages.  It  is  a  matter  with  which  almost 
every  rider  is  acquainted,  and  the  number  of  martingals, 
running-reins  and  other  contrivances  invented  especially 
to  attain  this  object  furnish  an  evidence  of  its  great  de- 
sirableness. Some  of  these  are  intended  to  act  on  the 
horse's  nose,  and  are,  therefore,  nearly  worthless  ;  others 
again  are  fixed,  and  consequently  more  or  less  danger- 
ous, besides  requiring  frequent  alterations  of  buckles,  etc., 
to  make  them  suit ;  a  third  class  act  on  the  reins,  and, 
interfering  with  the  direction  in  which  the  pull  on  the 
latter  is  exercised,  are  wholly  inadmissible  ;  some  few 
act  directly  on  the  bit  or  snaffle.  To  be  really  efficient, 
safe  and   applicable  under  all   circumstances,  the  run- 


•54  Bits  and  Bitting. 

ning-rein  or  martingal  should  act  directly  on  the  snaffle 
or  bridoon  itself,*  be  wholly  independent  of  the  reins, 
and  afford  a  facility  for  adjusting  its  action,  or  altoge- 
ther putting  an  end  to  it,  without  altering  either  buckle 
or  strap,  or  even  halting  the  horse  if  in  motion. 

As  a  general  rule,  when  a  horse  has  been  once  prop- 
erly broken  in  and  bitted,  it  should  not  require  any  con- 
trivances of  the  sort :  its  use  being  continued  after  a 
certain  period  is  an  evidence  of  something  being  wrong. 
Sometimes  this  is  incapable  of  remedy,  being  a  conse- 
quence of  some  peculiarity  in  the  animal's  build,  and 
then  there  is  no  help  for  it ;  but  a  good  running-rein, 
possessing  the  qualities  mentioned  above,  affords  very 
frequently  most  valuable  aid  in  the  first  handling,  and 
will,  if  judiciously  used,  save  the  rider  a  great  deal  of 
trouble,  the  horse  an  equal  quantity  of  ill-usage,  and, 
finally,  simplify  all  questions  of  bits  and  bitting  in  a  won- 
derful manner. 

The  best  of  all  these  contrivances  hitherto  invented 
is  perhaps  that  known  under  the  name  of  Seeger's  run- 
ning-reins (Schleif-Ziigel),  being  perfectly  simple,  safe 
and  applicable  to  all  styles  of  riding.  M.  Seeger,  the 
justly  celebrated  riding-master  at  Berlin,  and  undoubt- 
edly at  the  head  of  his  profession  in  Europe,  first  brought 
it  forward.  It  consists  of  three  distinct  pieces,  the  chin- 
strap,  the  running-rein  and  the  martingal.  The  chin- 
strap  consists  of  a  leather  curb  furnished  at  each  end 
with  a  small  buckle  and  strap,  by  means  of  which  it  is 
attached  to  the  cheek-rings  of  the  snaflSe  or  bridoon,  the 
entire  length,  including  the  buckles,  to  be  6  inches ; 
these  .atter,  when  covered  with  leather,  just  wide  enough 
to  admit  a  strap  4^  inches  wide,  and  2\  long,  project- 
ing over  the  buckle,  behind  which  it  is  sewed  on  to  the 
body  of  the  curb.    This  curb  carries  a  rounded  strap  in 

*  It  is  both  useless  and  dangerous  to  interfere  with  the  action  of 
the  bit  by  means  of  such  contrivances. 


The  Cavesson^  Snaffle^  etc.  155 

rear,  supporting  an  ivory  ring  which  may  have  an  inter- 
nal diameter  of  somewhat  more  than  one  inch  (say  li), 
the  external  one  being  if,  leaving,  therefore,  the  thick- 
ness of  the  ivory  about  \  an  inch. 

The  running-rein  is  in  one  straight  piece,  Si  feet  long 
from  the  buckle  to  the  point,  toward  \vhich  latter  it 
tapers  off  somewhat,  its  width  being  otherwise  that  of  a 
common  bit-rein,  -f^  of  an  inch.  An  18-inch  strap  of 
the  same  width  is  sewed  on  behind  the  buckle  and 
pierced  with  five  or  six  holes.  The  martingal  has  the 
same  contrivance,  as  usual,  of  a  buckle  for  forming  a 
loop  through  which  to  draw  the  girths  ;  but  the  other 
end  of  the  strap  (inch  wide),  instead  of  being  split  into 
two  narrow  ones,  each  carrying  its  own  ring,  is  left  of 
its  full  width,  and  carries  one  ivory  ring  of  li  inches  in- 
ternal diameter  and  3^  external,  leaving,  therefore,  f  of 
an  inch  for  the  thickness  of  the  ivory.  The  usual 
length  of  the  martingal  from  the  ring  to  the  buckle  is 
3^  to  4  feet,  the  latter  affording  scope  for  adjustment; 
and  there  is,  of  course,  a  neck-strap  for  carrying  the 
martingal,  which  is  too  well  known  to  need  descrip- 
tion. 

Let  us  now  suppose  the  horse  to  be  saddled  and  bri- 
dled with  a  plain  snaffle,  the  first  step  will  be  to  buckle 
the  chin-strap  into  the  rings  of  the  mouth-piece,  the 
martingale  having  been  previously  put  on  in  the  usual 
manner,  and  its  length  so  adjusted  that  the  large  ring  it 
carries  may  just  reach  the  level  of  the  joints  of  the 
shoulders.  The  next  step  will  be  to  buckle  one  end  of 
the  running-rein  into  a  D  ring  attached  for  that  purpose 
to  the  pommel  of  the  saddle  on  the  near  side  ;  the  other 
end  of  this  rein  is  then  carried  forward  throuo^h  the  rinsr 
of  the  martingal  (from  rear  to  front),  from  thence 
through  the  ring  of  tlie  chin-strap  from  left  to  right, 
and  back  again  through  the  martingal  ring  (from  front 
to  rear),  from  whence  it  goes  to  the  rider's  right  hand. 


156  Bits  and  Bitting, 

It  is  evident  that  a  pull  on  this  running-rein  will  act 
directly  on  the  mouth-piece,  drawing  it  back  and  some- 
what downward  toward  the  horse's  breast-bone  ;  the 
great  value  of  the  whole  arrangement  being,  that  by 
taking  the  running-rein  and  right  snaffle-rein  into  the 
right  hand,  and  the  other  snaffle-rein  into  the  left  ditto, 
we  can  place  the  horse's  head  in  any  position  we  desire, 
and  get  a  pull  on  the  horse's  mouth  either  horizontally 
upward  or  downward  as  may  seem  expedient.* 

The  training-halter  offers  no  obstacle  to  the  employ- 
ment of  this  running-rein  ;  indeed  they  may  be  very 
advantageously  used  in  combination,  and  afford  a  most 
perfect  command  over  the  horse's  head  without  the 
slightest  approach  to  violence,  and  by  slackening  the 
end  of  the  running-rein  held  in  the  right  hand,  its 
action  may  be  at  once  put  an  end  to,  unlike  all  other 
contrivances  of  this  nature,  which  are  too  apt  to  get 
hitched. 

The  use  of  Seeger's  running-rein  for  race-horses  is 
perfectly  unobjectionable.  It  gives  the  rider  an  im- 
mense power  over  his  horse,  which  may  be  used  mo- 
mentarily, to  check  an  attempt  to  bolt,  for  instance, 
and  immediately  relaxed,  or  it  may  be  kept  constantly 
in  moderate  action — for  instance,  with  a  horse  inclined 
to  throw  up  his  head  too  high — and  all  this  without  in- 
terfering with  his  running ;  on  the  contrary,  by  using 
this  rein  one  may  dispense  with  sharp  snaffles  or  curbed 
bits  w^hich  so  frequently  have  that  effect.  Seeger  him- 
self, however,  thinks  it  unsuited  to  racing  or  hunting 
purposes. 

But  it  is  chiefly  in  the  handling  of  young  animals, 
whether  for  the  saddle  or  draught,  that  these  contriv- 
ances are  valuable,  because  they  enable  us  to  attain  our 

*  The  advantage  as  compared  with  other  running-reins  is,  that  the 
position  of  the  horse's  head  depends  on  the  length  of  rein  grasped, 
and  not  on  the  force  applied. 


The  Cavcsson,  S7iaffle,  etc. 


^57 


objects  gradually  and  noiselessly,  as  it  were,  although 
with  perfect  certainty;    above  all,  they  afford  us   the 
means  of  avoiding  all  unnecessary  violence,  or  any  ap- 
proach to  ill  treatment. 
14 


CHAPTER   IV. 

THE    LEVER — THE    BIT    AND    CURB — BITTING — THB, 
BRIDLE. 

WITH  a  phiin,  smooth  snaffle  there  is  no  question 
of  lever  action  ;  the  amount  of  power  appHed  to 
the  reins  is  conveyed  unaltered  in  quantity  to  the  ani- 
mal's mouth  ;  to  use  a  scientific  expression,  there  is 
none  of  that  mechanical  advantage  obtained  which  a 
mechanical  power  alone  is  capable  of  conferring.  But 
if  we  combine  Seeger's  running-rein,  which  acts  on  the 
principle  of  a  movable  pulley,  a  certain  amount  of 
power  applied  to  that  rein  will  produce  double  the  effect 
on  the  mouth  that  it  would  if  applied  to  the  snaffle-rein 
alone. 

A  still  greater  amount,  however,  of  mechanical  ad- 
vantage may  be  obtained  by  means  of  a  lever ;  and  a 
bit.  furnished  with  a  curb  of  a  proper  length,  acts  as 
such.  There  are,  however,  several  kinds  of  levers,  and 
it  will  depend  altogether  on  the  manner  in  which  the 
bit  and  curb  are  arranged  whether  we  obtain  a  lever 
action  that  is  favorable  to  us  or  quite  the  contrary  ;  it  is 
therefore  necessary  to  say  a  word  or  two  on  the  princi- 
ples of  lever  action. 

In  the  first  order  of  levers  the  power  is  applied  at 
one  end,  the  weight  being  placed  at  the  other,  and  the 
fulcrum  or  prop  between  the  two,  dividing  thus  the 
158 


The  Lever ^  the  Bit  and  Curh^  etc.  150 

lever  into  two  arms,  a  longer  and  a  shorter  one.  The 
mechanical  advantage  obtained  is  proportionate  to  the 
relative  length  of  these  two  arms.  Thus,  \i  P  F.,  fig.  8 
(«),  be  equal  twice  W F^  a  power  equal  i  applied  at 
P  will  counterbalance  a  weight  equal  2  applied  at  W\ 
but,  as  regards  our  purpose,  it  is  more  especially  neces- 
sary to  observe  that  the  power  and  the  weight  move  in 

\  St  order  ^ Ol Z jW 

2d  order  t ^ y^ F 


opposite  directions,  or  rotate  round  the  fulcrum  or  prop, 
as  is  shown  by  the  direction  of  the  arrows.  Applying 
this  to  a  bit,  the  bars  of  which  represent  the  lever,  there 
can  be  no  question  as  to  where  the  power  is  applied, 
being  the  lower  ring  to  wliich  the  rein  is  attached,  noi 
as  to  the  direction  in  which  it  is  intended  to  act,  being 
toward  the  rider's  hand  ;  and  if  a  bit  act  as  a  lever  of 
the  first  order,  the  fulcrum  or  prop  must  be  represented 
by  the  bars  of  the  horse's  mouth  on  which  the  mouth- 
piece acts,  and  the  pressure  of  the  curb  on  the  chin 
\vould  necessarily  represent  the  weight  to  be  raised. 
But  it  has  been  shown  tliat,  in  levers  of  the  first  order, 
the  power  and  weight  move  in  opposite  directions  in 
their  rotation  about  the  prop  ;  in  this  case,  therefore, 
the  horse's  chin,  in  consequence  of  the  pressure  exer- 
cised by  the  curb,  should  move  forward — that  is  to  say, 
away  from  the  rider's  hand  ;  and  the  greater  the  lever- 
power  of  the  bit  and  the  stronger  the  pull  on  the  rein, 
so  much  the  more  would  the  horse  be  induced  to  stick 
out  his  nose — an  occurrence  that  is  by  no  meatis  infre- 
quent, and  at  which  some  riders  and  drivers  are  very 
much  astonished. 

Now,  in  fact,  there  is  no  weight  to  be  raised  in  the 


l6o  Bits  and  Bitting. 

purely  mechanical  sense  of  the  expression — it  is  a  ques- 
tion of  the  infliction  of  a  certain  amount  of  pain  from 
which  the  horse  shrinks ;  and  if  the  curb  act  more 
painfully  than  the  mouthpiece,  in  consequence  of  its 
construction  or  position,  we  obtain  the  action  of  a  lever 
of  the  first  order,  which  we  should  never  desire.  Some 
people  are  indeed  regardless  of  the  amount  of  pain  they 
inflict  on  a  horse,  and  go  on  increasing  this  painful 
action  in  both  directions,  without,  of  course,  obtaining 
any  real  advantage,  which  is  precisely  what  we  would 
desire  to  see  put  a  stop  to  ;  and  in  order  to  this  let  us 
examine  into  the  action  of  another  kind  of  lever. 

In  a  lever  of  the  second  order  the  power  and  prop 
act  or  are  placed  at  the  opposite  extremities  of  the  lever, 
the  weight  being  between  the  two  ;  the  mechanical  ad- 
vantage is  proportioned  to  the  relative  distances  of  the 
power  and  weight  from  the  prop.  For  instance,  if  P F"^ 
fig.  8  ((5),  be  equal  three,  and  W  F  equal  one,  these 
numbers  will  express  the  relative  amount  of  power 
gained  ;  and  it  is  to  be  observed  that  the  power  and  the 
weight  move  in  the  same  direction  in  rotatmg  round  the 
fulcrum.  This  is  what  we  want  for  bitting  ;  the  weight 
in  this  case  is  represented  by  the  pressure  on  the  bars 
of  the  mouth  ;  the  curb  acting  thus  merely  as  a  fulcrum, 
the  horse's  head  follows  immediately  the  pressure  on 
the  bar  in  the  direction  of  the  rider's  hand. 

It  is  very  evident  that  the  direction  in  which  the  bit 
acts  depending  altogether  on  the  relative  amount  of 
painful  pressure  exercised  by  the  bit  and  the  curb,  the 
horse's  head  will  follow  the  rider's  hand,  even  though 
the  curb  lacerate  his  chin,  if  only  a  greater  amount  of 
torture  be  applied  to  the  bars  of  his  mouth,  the  poor 
animal  being  left  to  deduce  from  the  balance  of  pain 
what  the  rider's  will  may  be.  This  is  the  system  of 
bitting  employed  by  the  Arabs  and  other  Orientals  at 
the  present  day ;  our  Crusader  forefathers  borrowed  it 


The  Lcver^  the  Bit  and  Curb,  etc. 


i6i 


from  theirs,  and,  strange  to  say,  it  is  still  more  or  less 
practiced  among  us. 

It  is,  however,  quite  possible  to  economize  for  our- 
selves all  this  surplus  ingenuity  in  devising  instruments 
of  torture,  and  to  spare  our  horses  the  infliction  of  it, 
merely  by  adjusting  our  bits  altogether  on  the  principle 
of  a  lever  of  the  second  order — that  is  to  say,  by  con- 
verting the  curb  into  a  simple  prop  or  fulcrum  for  the 
lever  action  on  the  bars  of  the  mouth,  which  may  be 
effected  by  rendering  it  perfectly  painless,  so  that  then 
the  small  amount  of  pressure  exercised  on  the  bars,  act- 
ing in  the  proper  direction,  and  not  being  counteracted 
elsewhere,  is  the  sum  total  of  pain  it  becomes  necessary 
to  inflict,  and  even  this  may  be  reduced  to  a  minimum. 


3^ 


^2-3=-l 


A 


0<\ 


^  3-2=1 


»2 


^a 


B 

Fig.  9. 


The  adjoining  fig.  9  shows  that,  supposing  a  power 
equal  to  5  to  be  applied  to  the  reins,  it  may,  in  con- 
sequence of  various  arrangements  of  the  mouthpiece 
and  curb,  be  made  to  exercise  an  amount  of  painful 
pressure  as  at  A,  where  3  parts  act  on  the  curb  and 
only  2  on  the  mouth,  which  will  make  the  horse  bore 
into  the  hand ;  or  as  at  B,  where  3  parts  act  on  the 
mouth  and  only  2  on  the  curb,  so  that  i  really  remains 
available.  Whereas,  by  reducing  the  painful  action  of 
the  curb  to  o,  as  at  C,  we  find  that  the  whole  amount 
of  action  may  be  applied  to  the  mouth,  and  therefore 
itself  reduced  to  2. 

Here  we  have  a  key  to  the  whole  theory  and  practice 
U*  L 


1 62 


Bits  and  Bitting, 


of  bitting,  and  there  is  no  difficulty  in  understanding 
that  its  immediate  consequence  will  be  to  render  bits 
of  small  dimensions  equally  efficient  and  much  more 
certain  and  reliable  in  their  action  than  the  monstrous 
pieces  of  ironmongery  usually  manufactured  and  sold 
ever  can  be  ;  and  we  now  proceed  to  enter  into  further 
details. 

The  first  question  that  naturally  presents  itself  is,  the 
absolute  length  of  the  lever — that  is  to  say,  of  the  upper 
and  lower  bars  of  the  bit  taken  together  ;  the  next,  that 
of  their  relative  proportions  to  each  other.  Before  going 
into  the  consideration  of  these,  it  will  be  well  to  clear  up 
one  or  two  preliminary  matters,  merely  premising  what 
is  self-evident  on  inspection — namely,  that  a  bit  may  be 
regarded  as  a  pair  of  levers  connected  together  by  the 
mouthpiece.  At  first  sight  this  might  lead  to  the  con- 
clusion that  the  centre  of  the  rivet  on  each  side  is  always 
the  point  from  which  the  length  of  the  upper  and  lower 
bars  is  to  be  measured.  This  is,  however,  only  true  for 
those  forms  of  mouthpiece  which  consist  of  a  port  and 
two  lateral  straight  portions  ;  but  if  the  whole  mouth- 
piece form  one  curve,  the  line  of  bearing — that  is  to  say, 
the  line  connecting  the  two  points  of  the  mouthpiece 


Lm.^. 


^faring 


Fig.  10. 


which  rest  on  the  bars  of  the  horse's  mouth — does  not 
coincide  with  the  axis  of  the  bit  passing  through  the 
centre  of  the  two  rivets,  which  must  be  taken  into  ac- 


The  Lcvc?'^  the  Bit  and  Ciirh^  etc,  163 

count  In  estimating  the  relative  lengths  of  the  upper  and 
lower  bars  of  the  bit. — See  fig,  10. 

The  measure  for  the  length  of  the  upper  bar  of  the 
bit,  taken  from  the  "line  of  bearing"  to  the  point  at 
which  the  curb-hook  acts,  is  the  height  of  the  bars  of 
the  horse's  mouth,  which,  as  has  been  shown  in  a  pre- 
vious chapter,  is  pretty  nearly  a  constant  quantity — 
namely,  i^  English  inches,  decreasing  with  very  small 
horses  and  ponies  to  i-j^;  therefore,  rejecting  too  great 
nicety,  we  may  say  that  i|  inches  is  the  proper  length 
for  the  upper  bar — very  seldom  less,  and  hardly  ever 
more. 

It  would  be  very  easy  to  demonstrate  mathematically 
why  these  two  dimensions  should  always  correspond, 
but  we  prefer  the  simpler  and  more  obvious  way  of 
showing  what  the  consequences  of  a  departure  from  the 
rule  must  necessarily  be. 

If  one  puts  a  bit  into  a  horse's  mouth  without  attach- 
ing a  curb  to  it^  when  the  reins  are  drawn  the  bit  turns 
right  round,  and  its  bars  or  branches  come  to  lie  in  the 
same  line  as  the  reins.  There  is  no  lever  action  what- 
ever, because  there  is  no  prop,  and  a  snaffle  or  bridoon 
would,  on  account  of  their  centre  joint,  be  much  more 
efficient.  The  same  thing,  too,  will  happen  if  the  curb 
be  very  loose  :  the  bit  is  then  said  to  "  fall  through  " — 
in  fact,  it  is  nearly  useless.  The  opposite  fault  to  "  fall- 
ing through  "  is  when  the  bit  "  stands  stift'"  without  any 
play,  the  slightest  pull  on  the  reins  causing  the  horse 
great  pain,  and,  most  probably,  just  in  the  wrong  place 
— that  is  to  say,  externally ;  for  this  stiffness  or  rigidity 
of  the  bit  is  very  often  produced  by  a  tight  curb,  and 
therefore  the  horse,  instead  of  following  the  rider's 
hand,  pokes  against  it.  Good  bitting  will  be  equally 
removed  from  stiffness  and  falling  through :  it  lies 
bet\veen  these  two  extremes. 

7'he  length  of  the  upper  bar  of  the  bit  will,  however, 


64 


Bits  and  Bitthig, 


of  itself  C2iuse  this  Instrument  either  to  stand  stiff  or  to 
fall  through,  if  it  exceed  or  come  short  of  the  heig^ht  of 
the  bars  of  the  mouth,  as  is  shown  in  fig.  ii,  where  d  e 
represents  this  latter  dimension,  d  b  an  upper  bar  pre- 
cisely equal,  d  c  one  of  only  half  the  same  length,  and 
d  a  one  double  the  same.  When  a  pull  of  the  rein  acts 
aty  on  the  lower  bar,  the  curb  will  be  drawn  closer  to 
the  chin,  and  the  mouthpiece  to  the  interior  of  that 
organ  ;  and  supposing  the  amount  of  this  "  closing  up  " 
to  be  equal  in  all  three  instances,  the  bit  with  a  long 
upper  bar,  d  a^  will  assume  the  position  a'  df^.  It 
will  be  stiffs  and  the  curb  acting  up-jcai'd^  in  the  direc- 
tion e  «',  will  press  on  the  sensitive  part  of  the  jaw. 
Moreover,  there  will  be  no  lever  action,  the  two  arms 
of  the  lever  being  equal ;  the  horse  will,  therefore,  bore 
in  the  rider's  hand.  On  the  other  hand,  the  bit  with  the 
short  upper  bar  d  c,  equal  half  d  e^  will  assume  the 
position  c'  d  f^ — that  is,  it  will  fall  throiigh.  The 
.".urb  will,  no  doubt,  remain  in  the  chin-groove,  and  act 


forward  in  the  direction  e  c\  but  forming  a  very  acute 
angle  with   the   branches   of  the  bit   itself,  will  have 


The  Lever^  the  Bit  and  Curh^  etc.  165 

scarcely  any  value  as  a  prop.  The  lever  action,  how- 
ever, will  be  very  great,  the  lower  branch,yc/,  being  to 
the  upper  one,  d  c,  in  the  proportion  of  4  to  i.  In  fact, 
it  will  be  too  great,  and,  therefore  reduces  the  prop  to  a 
nullity. 

The  intermediate  upper  bar,  d  3,  equal  d  e^  will 
assume  the  position  b'  df^ ;  it  will  neither  be  stiff  nor 
fall  through  :  the  curb  will  remain  in  the  chin-groove, 
acting  obliquely  forward  in  the  line  e  b\  and  will  afford 
a  sufficient  prop  or  support ;  and  the  lower  branch  of 
the  lever, y  of,  being  in  the  proportion  of  2  to  i  to  the 
upper  one,  d  3,  there  will  be  sufficient  lever  action. 

It  will  be  now  easy  to  understand  how  it  comes  that 
people,  in  order  to  prevent  a  bit  with  a  very  short 
upper  bar  falling  through,  are  driven  to  using  a  very 
tight  curb,  the  result  of  which  is,  that  the  whole  action 
is  transplanted  from  the  interior  of  the  mouth  to  the 
chin ;  as  also  that,  in  order  to  prevent  one  with  a 
very  long  upper  bar  standing  stiff,  they  use  a  very 
loose  curb,  which  has  the  effect  of  making  the  bit  f\ill 
through  ;  and  this — what  is  very  common,  nay,  almost 
invariable,  in  this  country — an  immensely  long  bit — is 
pulled  up  as  high  as  it  will  go  into  the  horse's  mouth, 
and  then  a  loose  curb  attached,  and  this  great  piece  of 
ironmongery  of  course  not  only  falls  through,  but  acts 
nearly  altogether  on  the  exterior  of  the  horse's  jaw ; 
whereas  a  much  smaller  and  lighter  bit,  if  adapted  to 
the  mouth,  would  be  much  more  efficient. 

Some  portion  of  the  objection  to  the  long  upper  bar 
referred  to  above — namely,  its  affording  no  lever  action 
— may  be  remedied  by  making  the  lower  bar  propor- 
tionably  longer ;  and  this  is  precisely  what  the  iron- 
mongers do,  and,  moreover,  are  encouraged  to  do  by 
ignorant  buyers.  As  has  been  already  shown  above 
with  reference  to  fig.  9,  we  are  thereby  driven  to  use 
much  severer,  that  is,  more  painful,  bits  than  are  really 


'66 


Bits  mid  Bitting. 


necessary  ;  besides  which,  there  is  another  reason  why 
we  cannot  go  beyond  a  certain  length  with  the  lower 
bar.  This  is  on  account  of  the  angle  at  which  the  rein 
acts  on  the  latter. 

We  have  already  pointed  out  how  much  depends  on 
the  angle  at  which  the  power  is  applied  to  a  lever,  and 
that  a  riofht  angfle  is  the  most  favorable  one  for  this 
purpose,  which  may  be  shown  in  a  manner  perfectly 
independent  of  theory.  If  the  bit,  fig.  12,  were  pulled 
in  the  direction  c,  it  would  evi- 
dently have  no  other  effect  than 
to  pull  it  downward  and  out 
of  the  horse's  mouth,  if  the 
headpiece  of  the  bridle  did  not 
prevent  this  taking  place  ;  and 
if  the  pull  were  made  in  the 
direction  b^  it  would  only  lift 
the  bit  up  till  the  angles  of  the 
mouth  stopped  it.  In  neither 
case  would  there  be  the  slight- 
est lever  action  ;  and  the  nearer 
any  other  direction,  g  or  //,  ap- 
proached these  perfectly  inop- 
erative ones,  b  or  c,  the  less 
would  be  its  value  ;  and  it  is 
i2.-Angle  formed  by  therefore  e^'ident  that  the  direc- 
rein  with  bit  tion  a,  which  is  equally  remote 

from  both,  must  be  the  most 
efficient — which  is,  however,  precisely  the  right  angle. 
Now  a  very  long  lower  bar,  or  a  very  low  carriage 
of  the  horse's  head,  a  la  Baucher,  or  a  very  high  pack 
in  the  front  of  the  saddle,*  will  always  have  the  effect 
of  bringing  the  rein  to  act  on  the  bit  at  an  unfavorable 
angle  ;  and  when  we  come  to  look  at  the  bits  that  served 
as  models  for  old  equestrian  statues,  we  find  that  the  im- 
*  See  Plates  VI.  and  VII.,  top  figures. 


»e 


Fi! 


The  Lever,  the  Bit  and  Curb,  etc,  167 

mense  long  lower  bars  of  these  were  bent  backward  so 
as  to  form  an  angle  with  the  upper  bars  for  the  purpose 
of  securing  the  action  of  the  rein  at  a  right  angle,  or 
nearly  so — which,  however,  did  not  and  could  not  an- 
swer the  purpose  intended.  If  the  inventors  of  these 
frightful  bits  had  had  any  real  knowledge  of  the  laws 
of  mechanics  and  the  application  of  lever  power,  they 
v^ould  have  found  that  the  same  amount  of  useful  action 
would  have  been  much  more  certainly  obtained  by  a 
much  shorter  lower  bar,  without  incurring  the  very 
serious  disadvantage  of  lifting  the  bit,  as  it  were,  in  the 
mouth,  which  always  must  have  the  effect  of  causing 
the  curb  to  mount  up  out  of  the  chin-groove,  and  there- 
fore produce  conflicting  impressions,  tending  to  neu- 
tralize one  another  and  puzzle  the  horse.  Moreover, 
the  longer  the  'ower  bar  the  greater  will  be  the  space 
through  whici  the  ridsr's  hand  has  to  move  in  order  to 
produce  a  %v  ^n  amount  of  action.  It  will  be  therefore 
slower,  altbc;igh  more  powerful,  and  consequently  more 
unequal,  rendering;  it  very  difficult  for  the  majority  of 
riders  to  hit  off'  exactly  the  precise  amount  of  pull  re- 
quired. 

Havi*rg  thus  arrived  at  the  conclusion  that  the  abso- 
lute lergth  of  the  lower  bar  should  be  diminished  as 
much  as  possible,  and  also  laid  it  down  as  a  rule  that  a 
length  of  if  inches  is  in  all  cases  sufficient  for  that  of 
the  upper  one,  it  i'»  not  difficult  to  ascertain  what  the 
relative  proportior/  of  the  two  should  be,  which  would, 
of  course,  give  ».«.  ^he  absolute  length  of  the  former. 
And  here  we  er.rr^  Ater  the  only  useful  general  rule  that 
bit-makers  in  5j-'  ri  ral  seem  to  be  acquainted  with — 
namely,  that  thr  Triver  bar  should  be  twice  as  long  as 
the  upper  one,  f /hich,  increasing  the  lever  action  in  the 
proportion  of  three  to  one,  should  be  under  all  circum- 
stances ample.  But  the  bit-makers,  although  adher- 
ing to  this   proportion,   but  too  frequently  make   the 


1 68  Bits  and  Bittincr. 


ii 


lower  bar  inordinately  long,  because  they  have  no 
standard  of  length  for  the  upper  one  ;  whereas,  if  we 
adhere  to  the  rule  laid  down  above  of  i|  inches  for  the 
latter  dimension,  we  have  3^  inches  for  the  former 
one,  both  measured  from  the  line  of  bearing  (see  fig. 
10),  and  5^  inches  for  the  entire  length  of  the  bit 
measured  from  the  point  at  which  the  curb-hook  acts 
above  to  that  where  the  lower  ring  acts  below  (see 
fig.  12).  This  will  be  the  maximum  required,  and 
will  be  found  to  suffice  in  all  cases ;  with  very  small 
horses  or  large  ponies  the  upper  bar  will  have  to  be 
reduced  to  \\  inches,  the  lower  one  to  3  inches,  leav- 
ing the  total  equal  \\  inches,  which  will  be  about  the 
minimum. 

Some  authorities,  among  these  Von  Weyrother,  re- 
commended the  measured  width  of  the  mouth  to  be 
taken  as  a  rule  for  tlie  length  of  the  lower  bar ;  this 
varies,  as  we  have  already  shown,  from  3^^,  4!  to  5^^ 
inches,  and  would  be,  therefore,  somewhat  more  than 
the  rule  given  above  ;  but  Von  Oeynhausen  adheres  to 
this  latter,  and  we  are  convinced  that  he  is  perfectly 
justified  in  so  doing,  because  we  liave  it  in  our  power, 
by  means  of  the  mouthpiece,  to  efiect  the  nicest  adjust- 
ment that  can  be  desired,  and  there  is  a  much  better 
chance  of  having  the  proper  proportions  adhered  to  by 
the  bit-makers  if  we  give  them  07ie  or  two  fixed  quanti- 
ties instead  of  a  number  of  variable  ones. 

Next  to  the  dimensions  of  the  bars  of  the  bit,  the  most 
important  point  to  be  considered  is  the  curb  ;  or  rather, 
the  position  of  the  bit  in  the  horse's  mouth,  taken  in 
conjunction  with  the  line  of  the  curb,  is  what  determines 
in  the  first  instance  the  height  of  the  upper  bar,  and 
consequently  that  of  the  lower  one.  The  curb  ??ittst 
lie  in  the  curb-groove^  without  a?iy  tendeiicy  to  mount 
up  out  of  it  on  to  the  sharp  bones  of  the  lower  jaw — 
otherwise,  as  we  have   seen,  it  ceases  to  be  a  painless 


The  Lcvei'^  the  Bit  and  Curb^  etc.  169 

fulcrum,  and  renders  the  best-constructed  bit  uncertain, 
or  even  still  worse,  in  its  action.     (See  fig.  11.) 

The  only  certain  way  of  attaining  this  perfect  pain- 
lessness of  the  curb,  on  which  so  much  depends,  is — sup- 
posing, of  course,  this  latter  to  be  properly  constructed 
and  of  the  requisite  dimensions — hy  f  lacing  the  Jiioztth- 
picce  on  that  part  of  the  bars  exactly  opposite  to  the 
chin-groove;  it  is  only  in  this  position  that  we  have  the 
right-handed  triangle,  e  d  b^  shown  in  fig.  11.  But  there 
is  another  reason  for  this  :  we  find  here  the  portion  of 
the  bar  of  the  horse's  mouth  best  suited  for  the  action 
of  the  mouth-piece — that  space  that  intervenes  between 
the  grinders  and  the  tusks,  where  these  exist.  With 
respect  to  the  latter,  it  is  necessary  to  mention  that  there 
is  great  irregularity  as  to  their  position  in  the  mouth, 
some  horses  having  them  relatively  higher,  others 
lower  ;  nor  do  the  tusks  of  the  upper  jaw  always  corre- 
spond with  those  of  the  lower  one,  and  mares  have  very 
frequently  no  tusks  whatever ;  it  is,  therefore,  quite 
impossible  to  determine  the  proper  place  for  the  mouth- 
piece w^ith  reference  to  these  teeth,  although  even  the 
cavalry  regulations  continue  to  do  so  :  the  chin-groove, 
in  consequence  of  its  relation  to  the  action  of  the  curb, 
is  the  essential  point  to  be  considered. 

Almost  all  the  defects  and  absurdities  of  bits  and  bit- 
ting may  be  traced  to  ignorance  of,  or  inattention  to,  this 
v^ery  simple  rule.  A  man  puts  a  bit  into  his  horse's 
mouth — let  us  suppose  that  it  is  a  well-proportioned  one 
in  every  respect ;  he  fixes  it  at  the  prescribed  "  inch 
above  the  lower  tusk"  if  he  be  a  soldier,  or  draws  it  up 
into  the  angle  of  the  lips  if  he  be  a  civilian  :  he  may  just 
happen  to  hit  off  the  right  place,  and  if  so,  even  an  ill- 
shaped  bit  will  work  tolerably  ;  he  is  content  with  his 
work,  and  thinks  he  has  mastered  the  difficulty.  But 
in  ninety-nine  cases  out  of  a  hundred  the  mouthpiece 
lies  higher  than  it  should  ;  and  if,  in  addition  to  this, 

15 


170  Bits  a  fid  Bitting. 

the  upper  part  of  the  bit  be,  as  it  so  frequently  is,  a 
quarter  of  an  inch  too  long,  then  the  curb  mounts  up 
out  of  the  chin-groove  and  causes  so  much  pain  that  the 
horse,  to  escape  it,  bores  into  the  rider's  hand.  He  will 
then,  perhaps,  try  a  longer  curb  or  a  shorter  one ;  the 
bit  will  either  fall  through  or  be  stiff,  and  he  concludes 
that  he  must  have  a  sharper  one,  and  has  a  recourse  to 
some  instrument  of  torture  ;  and  so  it  goes  on  from  bad 
to  worse,  till  he  gets  rid  of  the  poor,  ill-used  animal.* 

The  best-fitting  bit,  even  when  placed  in  the  proper 
place,  will  not  work  well  unless  the  curb  be  properly 
constructed  and  exactly  of  the  length  required.  Taking 
all  in  all,  a  double  chain  worked  quite  flat,  without 
prominent  edges,  and  which,  when  twisted  zip  to  its 
full  extent,  does  not  overtzvist^  is  the  best  kind  of  curb. 
Leather  would  be,  in  some  respects,  better  than  a  chain  ; 
it  is,  however,  not  only  perishable,  but  also  subject  to 
stretch  or  contract  when  exposed  to  moisture  ;  and  after 
having  been  once  or  twice  thoroughly  soaked,  becoming 
hard  and  inflexible,  it  is  more  likely  to  injure  the  horse's 
chin  than  a  well-made  chain. 

It  is  very  clear  that  the  narrower  the  chain  is  made 
the  more  likely  is  it  to  cause  pain,  which  is  just  what 
we  want  to  avoid,  and  we  should,  therefore,  endeavor 
to  make  it  as  broad  as  possible.  The  vulgar  notion  of  a 
sharp  curb  is,  as  the  reader  perceives,  a  monstrous  ab- 
surdity.    But  there  is  a  limit  to  this :  if  it  be  so  broad 

*  This  is  no  imaginary  case :  the  author  once  saw  a  nice  little  thor- 
ough-bred horse  at  Ostend,  and  a  few  months  later  at  Dublin,  as  second 
charger  of  a  light  cavalry  officer  of  the  garrison.  It  was  set  down  as 
an  incurable  bolter,  and,  passing  through  the  hands  of  the  riding-mas- 
ter, adjutant  and  several  officers,  was  finally  sold,  as  dangerous  to  ride, 
for  ;^ 1 5  at  a  fifth-rate  auction-mart.  The  purchaser,  a  ladies'  doctor, 
brought  it  to  the  author,  who,  after  curing  its  dreadfully  lacerated 
mouth  and  jaws,  bitted  it  properly  with  a  very  light  bit,  which  enabled 
the  dov-tor  to  ride  it  within  a  week  at  a  review  of  the  regiment  in  ques- 
tion, and  for  several  years  afterward,  without  ever  bolting  or  being 
troublesome  :  never  was  there  a  better-tempered  creature. 


TJie  Lever ^  the  Bit  and  Cnrh^  etc.  i^i 

as  to  fill  up  the  chin-groove  completelj/,  there  will  be 
always  a  danger  of  its  upper  ^([•g^  coming  in  contact 
with  the  sharp  cheek-bones  at  every,  even  the  slightest, 
pull  on  the  reins,  and  getting  up  a  sore  which  imme- 
diately interferes  with  the  action  of  the  bit ;  we  must 
therefore  select  a  curb  that  does  7iot  altogether  fill  up 
the  groove.  It  is  not  easy  to  give  any  special  dimension 
for  the  width  of  the  curb-chain  :  eight-tenths  of  an  inch 
will  be  found  to  answer  the  purpose  very  generally,  but 
if  we  can  use  a  broader  curb  without  injuring  the  chin- 
groove,  so  much  the  better ;  it  is  more  likely  to  be  flat 
and  painless.  Curbs  are  frequently  made  to  taper  oft^  a 
little  toward  the  ends  :  there  is  no  objection  to  this,  ex- 
cept that,  being  more  difficult  to  manufacture  with  pre- 
cision, they  are  seldom  so  well  made  as  the  curb  that  is 
equally  broad  throughout.  Single-chain  curbs  made  of 
flat  links  may  be  good,  if  not  too  broad  or  sharp-edged  ; 
the  plain  double  chain  will  b^  probably  better  made, 
and  therefore  preferable  :  the  great  thing  is  to  avoid  the 
infliction  of  pain  ;  and  if  we  are  sometimes  compelled 
to  use  a  very  narrow  curb  on  account  of  the  chin-groove 
being  sharp  and  narrow,  it  will  be  well  to  have  a  cloth 
case  to  run  over  it,  which  may  be  taken  ofl'  after  use 
each  time. 

It  is  not  possible  to  give  an  exact  dimension  in  inches 
for  the  length  of  the  curb  ;  a  little  reflection  will  show 
that  it  must  always  bear  some  special  proportion  to  the 
width  of  the  horse's  mouth  and  the  height  of  the  bars, 
the  latter  of  these  quantities  being  nearly  constant,  whilst 
the  former  one  is  variable,  as  has  been  shown  above. 
We  must  here  anticipate,  to  a  certain  extent,  the  con- 
tents of  the  next  paragraph.  In  order  to  render  the 
action  of  the  curb  as  painless  as  possible,  it  is  absolutely 
necessary  that  it  should  press  upon  the  greatest  extent 
of  surface  that  can  be  made  available  for  the  purpose, 
for  which  reason,  of  course,  we  require  this  instrument 


172  Bits  and  Bitting. 

itself  to  be  flat,  and  as  broad  as  the  chin-groove  will 
allow.  If  the  mouthpiece  have  exactly  the  same  width 
as  the  mouth,  the  curb  will  wrap  close  round  the  chin, 
pressing  equably  over  a  large  surface  ;  but  if,  on  the 
contrary,  it  be  too  wide,  the  curb  will  trend  away  right 
and  left ;  and  if  the  excess  of  width  amount  to  half  an 
inch  or  an  inch,  it  will  bear  altogether  on  one  spot,  and 
get  up  a  sore,*  although  it  is  really  longer  than  it  should 
be. 

It  will  be  found  that  the  proper  length  for  the  curb  is 
about  one-fourth  more  than  the  width  of  the  mouth,  the 
curb-hooks  not  being  included  in  this ;  or,  if  we  take 
these  into  account,  the  total  of  the  curb  and  the  two 
hooks  will  be  once  and  a  half  the  same  dimension. 

The  curb-hooks  form  an  important  item  in  the  arrange- 
ment. It  was  formerly  the  custom  to  have  one  hook 
attached  permanently  at  the  near  side  of  the  bit,  and 
another  of  a  somewhat  different  form  to  the  oft^  side  of 
the  curb,  but  it  has  now  become  usual  to  attach  a  paii 
of  hooks  of  exactly  the  same  shape  and  dimensions, 
which  is  a  great  improvement:  the  proper  length  for 
these  is  th:ee-fourths  the  height  of  the  upper  bar,  or 
about  \\  inches. 

The  above  length  of  curb  applies  to  what  is  really  em- 
ployed between  the  two  hooks,  but  it  is  usual  to  have 
one  reserve  link  at  the  offside,  and  two  of  these  at  the 
near  one,  which  latter  are  convenient,  or  rather  indis- 
pensable, for  catching  a  proper  hold  of  the  curb  when 
being  hooked  on. 

We  have  now  gone  step  by  step  through  the  several 
details  connected  with  the  bit  considered  as  a  lever — 
namely,  its  cheeks  or  upper  and  lower  bars,  and  the 
curb  with  its  hooks,  which  represent  the  fulcrum  or 

*  The  author  once  found  some  thirty  or  forty  horses  in  one  squadron 
each  with  a  little  round  ulcer  on  the  chin  in  consequence  of  the  bits 
being  too  wide. 


TVie  Lever ^  the  Bit  and  Curb^  etc,  173 

prop.  There  remains  the  mouthpiece,  which  is  of  equal 
if  not  greater  importance  as  the  part  of  the  instrument 
through  which  the  immediate  impression  is  made  on 
the  mouth,  and  therefore  generally  placed  in  the  fore- 
ground by  writers  on  this  subject.  It  appeared,  how- 
ever, to  us  to  be  a  matter  of  great  importance  to  make 
it  perfectly  clear,  in  the  first  place,  that  the  entire  action 
of  the  bit  should  be  concentrated  on  the  mouthpiece, 
that  the  operation  of  the  curb  should  be  confined  wholly 
to  the  function  of  a  painless  fulcrum,  and  that  there  are 
certain  narrow  limits  to  the  size  of  the  upper  and  lower 
bars  which  form  the  cheeks  of  the  instrument.  The 
form  and  proportions  of  the  mouthpiece  must  be  deduced 
wholly  from  the  interior  conformation  of  that  part  of  the 
mouth  on  which  it  is  intended  to  act,  and  these  are,  the 
tongue  in  the  centre  and  the  bars  of  the  mouth  on  each 
side.  It  has  been  already  pointed  out  that  the  relative 
hardness  or  softness  of  the  mouth,  so  far  as  this  depends 
on  the  conformation  of  this  organ  itself,  is  a  consequence 
of  the  greater  or  less  thickness  of  the  tongue  and  the 
greater  or  less  sharpness  and  sensitiveness  of  the  bars. 
The  soft,  fleshy  tongue  is,  of  course,  much  less  sensitive 
to  pressure  than  the  bony  bars,  covered  only  with  a  very 
thin  membrane  ;  and  consequently,  if  we  used  a  per- 
fectly straight  unjointed  mouthpiece  of  a  moderate  thick- 
ness, this  resting  wholly  on  the  animal's  tongue  would, 
notwithstanding  a  certain  amount  of  lever  action,  be  the 
very  lightest  form  of  bit  that  could  be  well  devised  ;  in 
fact,  a  good  snaffle  would,  on  account  of  the  joint,  be 
more  powerful.  On  the  other  hand,  if  by  means  of 
what  is  called  a  "port"  we  remove  all  pressure  from 
the  tongue  and  transfer  it  to  the  peculiarly  sensitive 
bars,  we  obtain,  with  precisely  the  same  amount  of  lever 
action  as  before,  a  much  greater  amount  of  power — in 
fact,  the  sharpest  form  of  bit  that  it  is  generally  advisa- 
ble to  use.  Now  between  these  two  extremes  there  is  a 
15* 


174  Bits  and  Bitting, 

wide  range,  and  the  whole  art  of  bitting  consists,  so  far 
as  the  mouthpiece  goes,  in  determining  how  much  of 
the  pressure  shall  fall  on  the  tongue  and  how  much  on 
the  bars,  and  we  are  thus  enabled,  by  means  of  an  al- 
most infinite  system  of  gradations,  to  obtain  exactly  the 
degree  of  action  required  in  each  particular  instance  by 
the  nature  of  the  service  we  demand,  whatever  the  rela- 
tive thickness  of  the  tongue  and  sensitiveness  of  the  bars 
may  chance  to  be. 

But  there  is  one  essential  to  be  attended  to — namely, 
that  the  portion  of  the  mouthpiece  destined  to  rest  on 
the  tongue  and  the  bars  respectively  should  keep  their 
proper  places,  and  this  can  be  secured  only  by  7naking 
the  mouthpiece  of  precisely  the  same  zvidth  as  the 
horse's  month.  For  it  is  very  evident  that  if  a  mouth- 
piece furnished  with  a  port  be  too  ivide^  a  very  slight 
pull  on  one  rein  will  suffice  to  displace  it,  so  that  the 
bar  at  that  side  gets  either  altogether  under  the  port,  in 
which  case  the  whole  pressure  is  thrown  on  the  tongue, 
or  partially  so,  when  the  corner  of  the  port  will,  by 
being  pressed  into  it,  cause  great  pain — in  fact,  the  ac- 
tion of  the  mouthpiece,  whether  with  or  without  a  port, 
becomes  altogether  irregular  and  cannot  be  depended 
on.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  mouthpiece  be  too  nar- 
row, the  lips  are  jammed  in  over  the  bars,  the  mouth- 
piece rests  more  or  less  on  them,  and  the  whole  action 
is  disturbed,  besides  which  the  horse  is  sure,  sooner  oi 
later,  to  get  ulcerated  lips. 

The  Jirst gra7id  rule  must  be^  therefore^  in  all  cases^ 
to  ?nake  the  mouthpiece  precisely  so  wide  that^  when 
placed  in  the  mouthy  it  Jits  close  to  the  outer  surface 
of  the  lips  without  either  pressing  on  these  or  being 
subject  to  be  displaced  laterally. 

But  it  is  also  evident  that  the  different  parts  of  the 
mouthpiece  must  be  exactly  fitted  to  the  interior  of  the 
mouth  ;  that  is  to  say,  that  those  portions  destined  to 


The  Lever ^  the  Bit  and  Curh^  etc.  175 

act  on  the  bars  of  the  lower  jaw  should  come  into  con- 
tact with  them,  and  with  them  alone,  and  in  the  degree 
required  ;  and  that,  on  the  other  hand,  that  portion  des- 
tined to  act  on  the  tongue  should  be  of  exactly  the 
proper  dimensions  and  form.  Of  course  there  is  a  great 
difference  in  this  respect  between  smooth  mouthpieces 
and  such  as  have  a  port ;  in  fact,  it  is  only  as  regards 
the  latter  that  the  dimensions  are  important.  Where, 
then,  a  port  exists,  its  width  should  be  exactly  that  of  the 
tongue-channel,  as  otherwise  it  would  either  intrench  on 
the  space  allotted  to  that  portion  of  the  mouthpiece 
required  for  the  bars,  and  produce  the  inconveniences 
alluded  to  above  ;  or,  if  narrower,  it  would  fail  to  an- 
swer the  purpose  for  which  it  is  intended,  namely,  to 
admit  the  tongue.*  The  width  of  the  port  7mist  be^ 
therefore^  exactly  that  of  the  tongue-channel — and  this 
is  the  second  grand  rule  as  regards  the  mouthpiece. 
Now  it  has  been  already  shown  that  the  width  of  the 
tongue-channel  is  very  constantly  three-fourths  of  the 
height  of  the  bars,  which  being  equally  constantly  1.8 
inches,  we  have  i^  inches  for  the  maximum  width  of  the 
port,  even  in  case  where  the  total  width  of  the  mouth, 
and  consequently  of  the  mouthpiece,  amounts  to  4I  and 
5-j^  English  inches  :  for  pony  and  hack  bits  about  i  inch 
will  suffice  ;  whereas  the  common  practice  of  the  bit- 
makers  seems  to  be  to  make  it  one-third  of  the  total 
width  in  all  cases. 

For  the  height  of  the  port,  of  course,  no  rule  can  be 
given,  this  being  precisely  the  most  variable  dimension 
of  all,  and  depending  altogether,  so  far  as  the  interior 
conformation  of  the  mouth  is  concerned,  on  the  relative 
thickness  of  the  tongue  and  sensitiveness  of  the  bars  ; 
and  further,  as  we  have  already  shown,  on  the  tempera- 

*  The  Germans  call  the  port  of  a  bit  the  "  tongue-freedom  " — Zun- 
genfreiheit — which  expresses  exactly  the  purpose  for  which  it  is  in- 
tended. 


176 


Bits  and  Blttiri}. 


ment  and  general  conformation  of  the  animal ;  finally, 
too,  on  the  description  of  service  to  which  it  is  to  be 
applied  ;  to  which  must,  in  some  cases,  be  added  the 
peculiar  style  of  riding  or  driving  of  the  individual  that 
uses  it ;  for  nothing  can  be  more  certain  than  that  the 
best  bitting  in  the  world  is  wholly  useless,  nay,  some- 
times dangerous,  in  bad,  that  is  to  say,  heavy  or  rude 
hands. 

Fig.  13  shows  a  succession  of  mouthpieces  of  the 
forms  now  generally  adopted,  beginning  with  the  light- 
est— that  is  to  say,  the  one  whose  pressure  is  almost 
entirely  exercised  on  the  tongue — and  proceeding  on- 
ward with  an  increase  of  port  or  "  tongue-freedom"  to 


Fig.  13. — Various  mouthpieces. 

the  very  sharpest  it  is  advisable  or  can  ever  be  neces- 
sary to  use — namely,  to  one  in  which  the  height  of  the 
port  is  equal  to  its  width,  say  i\  inches;  and  beyond 
this  it  is  impossible  to  go,  because  the  slightest  pull  on 
the  rein  would,  by  altering  the  position  of  the  lever, 
bring  the  top  of  the  port  to  press  against  the  palate, 
causing  more  or  less  pain,  and  therefore  inducing  the 
horse  to  bore  with  its  head  in  the  contrary  direction  to 
the  pressure — that  is,  away  from  the  rider's  hand. 

A  mere  inspection  of  these  figures  shows  that  the 
thickness  of  the  iron  or  steel  is  an  important  item  ;  the 


The  Lever ^  the  Bit  aiid  Curh^  etc.  177 

diameter  of  the  straight  portion  of  the  mouthpiece  may 
vary  from  a  half  to  three-quarters  of  an  inch  ;  and  it  is 
scarcely  necessary  to, point  out  that  the  greater  the 
diameter  the  less  painful  will  be  its  action  on  the  bars 
of  the  mouth.  When  under  half  an  inch  it  pinches  to 
a  certain  extent,  and  should  therefore  be  only  employed 
when  one  is  quite  certain  that  this  is  desirable.  In  fig. 
13  we  ha\'e  made  the  width  of  the  port  exactly  \\ 
inches,  that  of  the  whole  moutlipiece  being  only  4, 
which  would  be  rather  under  the  mark.  The  thickness 
of  the  mouthpieces  Nos.  i,  2,  3,  4  is  three-quarters  of 
an  inch,  and  these  range  from  what  is  considered  to  be 
the  very  lightest  form.  No.  i  up  to  No.  4,  which  repre- 
sents a  medium  bit.  We,  however,  should  always 
prefer  No.  2  or  No.  3  to  No.  i,  for  the  arched  form  of 
the  latter  throws  nearly  the  whole  pressure  on  the 
tongue,  and  the  very  small  amount  that  fcdls  on  the  bars 
of  the  mouth  does  so  laterally.,  and  not  from  front  to 
rear.  This  form  of  mouthpiece,  too,  is  always  unsteady, 
and  we  have  seen  many  horses  whose  tongues  have  been 
nearly  cut  through  bv  its  use  with  a  tight  curb.  The 
mouthpieces  Nos.  5,  6,  7  are  only  half  an  inch  thick, 
which  renders  their  action  on  the  bars  of  the  mouth 
more  telling;  they  represent  sharp  bits.  It  will  not 
escape  observation  that  a  greater  thickness  of  the  mouth- 
piece adds,  in  fact,  to  the  height  of  the  port ;  it  is  like 
placing  an  arch  on  higher  buttresses,  but  it  renders  the 
action  on  the  bars  less  painful,  and  enables  us  to  meet 
the  exigencies  of  special  cases — as,  for  instance,  where 
a  horse  has  a  thick,  fleshy  tongue  and  very  sensitive 
bars,  and  would  not  bear  anything  like  sharp  bitting. 

There  is  another  adjustment  that  maybe  occasionally 
employed  with  advantage,  and  which  naturally  finds  its 
place  here.  The  plane  of  the  port  is  usually  made  to 
coincide  with  that  of  the  whole  bit ;  in  other  words,  if 
we  look  at  the  instrument  from  either  side,  the  port 

M 


178  Bits  and  Bitthig. 

will  be  covered  by  the  upper  bars ;  but  it  is  easy  to 
perceive  that,  by  inclining  it  a  little  forward,  we  may 
increase  the  tongue-freedom  without  making  the  port 
itself  higher ;  this,  however,  can  only  be  resorted  to 
with  a  port  of  veiy  moderate  height,  otherwise  the  roof 
of  the  palate  would  be  endangered  by  every  pull  on  the 
rein. 

Again,  we  have  the  well-known  contrivance  of  rings, 
which  prevent  horses  from  seizing  the  bit  between 
their  grinders,  and  thereby  neutralizing  the  lever  action, 
as  some  will  do  occasionally ;  they  are  also  very  useful 
with  what  are  called  "  dead  mouths,"  and  favor  the 
very  desirable  process  of  "  champing  the  bit."  These 
rings  may  also  be  advantageously  applied  to  the  top  of 
the  arch  of  the  port,  where  this,  either  on  account  of 
its  absolute  height  or  its  being  inclined  forward  is 
likely  to  touch  the  palate.  Where  rings  are  employed 
they  must  be  very  movable,  and,  to  insure  this,  few  in 
number. 

We  have  hitherto  considered  the  mouthpiece  as  con- 
sisting of  one  piece,  but  fashion  has  introduced  a  great 
variety  of  jointed  mouthpieces,  and  these  are  much 
used  in  England.  We  may  classify  these  mouthpieces 
generally  into  such  as,  having  a  common  snaffle-joint, 
are  capable  of  being  deflected  in  every  direction  ;  and, 
on  the  other  hand,  such  as,  having  a  hinge-joint,  can 
only  be  deflected  backward  and  forward  relatively  to 
the  plane  of  the  bit.  In  both  cases  the  deflection 
affords  in  its  own  way  a  certain  amount  of  tongue-free- 
dom, like  the  port  of  an  unjointed  bit ;  but  here  all 
resemblance  between  the  action  of  the  two  ceases ;  for 
while  the  pressure,  and  consequently  the  action,  of  the 
latter  is  exerted  in  a  direction  parallel  to  the  horse's 
backbone,  that  of  the  former,  taking  a  diagonal  direc- 
tion toward  the  centre,  degenerates  into  a  pincer-like 
gripe,  which  is  wholly  unreliable  with  the  snaffle-joint. 


The  Lever  ^  I  he  Bit  and  Citrh^  etc.  179 

and  more  or  less  so  with  the  hinge  one.  From  the 
riding-school  point  of  view,  jointed  bits  are  altogether 
objectionable ;  from  the  military  one,  they  are  scarcely 
admissible,  although  the  Prussian  light  cavalry  adheres 
to  their  use.  For  road-riding  and  hunting  purposes 
the  well-known  Pelham  is  in  great  favor  ;  and  as  there 
must  be  some  ground  for  this,  it  is  worth  while  inquir- 
ing into. 

The  great  argument  in  favor  of  the  Pelham  is,  that 
the  upper  pair  of  reins  give  you  the  action  of  a  snaffle — 
which  is,  however,  not  quite  correct,  but  let  it  pass — • 
while  the  lower  pair- afford  that  of  a  curb-bit,  as  the 
expression  is.  To  this  latter  we  must  oppose  a  decided 
negative  for  two  reasons  :  first,  because  the  action  that 
results  is  that  of  a  pincer,  as  shown  above  ;  and  second- 
ly, because  if  the  dimensions  of  the  upper  and  lower 
bars  of  our  unjointed  bits  are  very  irregular  and  gen- 
erally much  exaggerated,  they  are,  in  the  case  of  the 
Pelham,  simply  monstrous,  so  that  the  curb  is  invari- 
ably dragged  right  up  out  of  the  chin-groove,  and  on  to 
the  most  sensitive  part  of  the  under  jaw,  the  eHects  of 
which  we  have  so  frequently  pointed  out.  No  doubt 
the  Pelham  will  produce  ''''painful  action"  enough,  and 
so  far  as  those  whose  ideas  0:0  no  farther  as  regards  the 
unjointed  bit  are  justified  in  making  a  comparison ; 
but  a  painful  action  exerted  in  a  wrong  or  even  uncer- 
tain direction  is  certainly  a  mistake. 

If  we  had  to  address  ourselves  exclusively  to  really 
good  and  intelligent  riders,  we  w^ould  say  what  they  are 
themselves  perfectly  aware  of — With  your  steady  seat, 
and  light  hand  resulting  therefrom,  you  have  more  per- 
fect command  over  your  horses  with  a  well-constructed 
snaffle  than  with  any  Pelham.  Your  very  conviction 
of  this  sets  you  at  ease,  and  that  is  a  great  point.  If 
you  want  a  little  help  with  a  young  horse  here  and 
there,  or  with  one  whose   neck  is  turned  upside  down 


I  So  Bits  and  BiUi)ig. 

or  the  like,  you  have  only  to  apply  the  running-rein  or 
a  martingal  ;  or,  if  you  prefer  it,  the  same  qualities  of 
seat,  hand  and  heai-t  will  enable  you  to  put  a  well-pro- 
portioned, light, "unjointed  bit  into  your  horse's  mouth. 
But  the  great  majority  of  riders  do  not  belong  to  the 
class  we  have  described  above,  and  have  neither  the 
steady  seat  nor  the  confidence  that  arises  from  it,  there- 
fore seek  after  something  more  powerful  than  the  com- 
mon snaffle.  Indeed,  as  a  general  rule,  one  finds  tlie 
bitting  severe  and  the  tackle  complicated  in  the  inverse 
proportion  of  the  qualities  of  the  rider  ;  and  as  to  a  light 
hand,  it  is  altogether  out  of  the  question  with  people 
who  "  stick"  on  their  horses  after  the  fashion  of  a  mon- 
key mounted  on  a  poodle,  and  derive  their  chief  support 
from  the  reins.  To  such  persons  we  would  say,  im- 
prove your  seat  in  the  first  place  ;  until  you  learn  to 
keep  it  with  ease,  altogether  independent  of  the  reins, 
you  will  be  always  looking  out  for  something  Pelhamy 
that  will  afibrd  you  a  gripe  to  hold  on  by  ;  just  the  very 
reason  you  can't  master  your  horses  with  a  snaffle,  and, 
at  a  pinch,  something  w^ith  the  action  of  a  curb-bit, 
which  you  are  afraid  of,  because  it  affords  little  or 
nothing  to  hold  on  by.  If  your  judgment  were  only 
equal  to  your  pluck,  you  would  soon  become  independ- 
ent of  these  hybrid  instruments  that  pretend  to  com- 
bine the  action  of  snaffle  and  bit,  and,  like  most  other 
makeshifts,  answer  neither  purpose  perfectly  and  re- 
liably. 

We  do  not,  however,  mean  to  say  that  a  Pelham 
should  never  be  used  ;  as  a  matter  of  fancy,  fashion  or 
old  habit,  many  a  good  rider  will  cling  to  it ;  but  then 
its  dimensions  should  be  as  carefully  adjusted  to  those 
of  the  horse's  mouth,  and,  moreover,  to  the  other  pecu- 
liarities of  the  individual  animal's  build  and  temper,  as 
we  have  shown  to  be  necessary  with  the  unjointed  bit ; 
and  this  brings  us  to  another  form  of  jointed  bit — that 


The  Lever ^  the  Bit  and  Curb,  etc.  iSl 


used,  as  already  mentioned,  in  the  Prussian  light  cavalry 
(No.  8,  fig.  13). 

These  are  very  similar  to  a  straight-barred  bit  with 
moderate  tongue-freedom,  but  with  a  snaffle-joint  at  the 
top  of  the  port ;  and  their  dimensions  being  in  accord- 
ance with  the  size  and  character  of  the  horses,  there  is 
nothing  irregular  in  their  action,  especially  as  care  is 
taken  to  put  them  into  the  proper  part  of  the  horse's 
mouth.  We  consider  the  unjointed  bit  to  be  a  better 
and  more  perfect  instrument,  especially  in  the  hands 
of  a  good  rider ;  but  we  must  not  overlook  the  fact, 
that  the  time  of  service  in  the  Prussian  cavalry  being 
restricted  to  three  years,  and,  in  consequence  of  the 
system  of  recruiting,  a   considerable   number  of  men 


^i     1 


Fig.  14. 

being  brought  into  the  ranks  who  have  no  previous 
habits  of  horsemanship,  there  maybe  reasons  for  adopt- 
ing this  jointed  bit  quite  independent  of  its  relative 
merit. 

We  would  recommend  those  who,  for  hunting  or 
racing  purposes,  wish  to  have  a  sufficient  command 
over  their  horses,  combined  with  a  more  decided  lean- 
ing on  the  bit  than  is  necessary  for  road-riding  or  pos- 
sible for  the  cavalry  soldier,  to  use  what  we  should  be 
inclined  to  call  a  dumpy  bit,  fig.  14 — that  is  to  say,  one 
whose  upper  bar  is  exactly  of  the  dimension  prescribed 
above,  but  whose  lower  bar,  instead  of  being  double  the 
same,  is  only  about  2I  to  3  instead  of  3^  inches  long, 
16 


iSj  Bits  a?id  Bitting. 

selecting  some  one  of  the  mouthpieces,  Nos.  2,  3,  4  or 
5,  fig.  13,  that  may  otherwise  suit,  and  placing  it  accu- 
rately opposite  to  the  chin-groove.*  Such  a  bit  would 
be  found  much  more  reliable  than  one  of  double  the 
dimensions  that  is  badly  placed  ;  and  although  some 
authorities  recommend  for  such  purposes  an  ordinary 
bit  placed  a  little  higher  in  the  mouth  than  its  true 
place,  we  have  found  it  better  to  reduce  the  dimensions 
of  the  lower  bar,  as  you  have  always  a  difficulty  with 
the  curb  if  you  once  depart  from  the  rule. 

We  have  hitherto  treated  the  lower  bar  of  the  bit  as 
a  straight  line,  and  this  is  the  form  usually  adopted  in 
common  life  ;  while  for  military  purposes  various  curves 
are  adopted,  the  best  and  nicest-looking  being  nearly 
in  the  shape  of  a  capital  S.  This  variety  of  form,  it 
should  be  understood,  has  nothing  to  do  with  the  action 
of  the  bit  as  a  lever  ;  the  point  of  attachment  of  the 
lower  ring,  the  centre  of  the  rivet  of  the  mouthpiece 
and  that  of  the  upper  ring  or  eye,  should  be  in  one 
straight  line  and  at  the  same  proportional  distances 
from  each  other,  in  both  cases  alike.  The  real  object 
of  the  double  curve  of  the  lower  bar  of  the  military  bit 
is  to  prevent  the  horse  from  catching  hold  of  it  with  his 
lips,  and  then  getting  it  between  his  teeth,  a  trick  many 
horses  acquire.  With  the  straight  bar  recourse  is  had 
to  a  curb-strap  in  such  cases,  as  every  one  knows  ;  but 
it  is  much  simpler  and  easier  for  military  purposes  to 
adopt  the  curved  bar,  and  there  is  no  other  reason  be- 
yond whim  and  fashion  why  civilians  should  not  do  the 
same. 

As  to  the  upper  ring  or  eye  into  which  the  headstall 
of  the  bridle  is  fastened,  this  is  now  pretty  nearly 
always  really  ring-shaped.  In  former  times  it  was 
usually  flattened  down  in  various  degrees  from  an  oval 

*  A  bridoon  should  be  used  with  this  as  with  every  other  regular 
bit. 


The  Lever ^  the  Bit  and  Curb^  etc.  183 

to  a  mere  horizontal  slit ;  but  since  the  real  principles 
of  bitting  have  become  better  understood,  the  simple 
ring  is  preferred,  and  will  be  generally  found  to  answer 
all  purposes  perfectly,  although,  no  doubt,  there  are 
some  cases  where  it  might  be  convenient  to  use  the 
oval-shaped  eye  ;  these  are,  however,  very  few  indeed. 
We  have  also  hitherto  considered  the  right  and  left  side 
pieces  (upper  and  lower  bar  taken  together)  of  the  bit 
as  being  in  all  cases  parallel  to  each  other,  and  conse- 
quently at  right  angles  to  the  mouthpiece.  There  are, 
however,  many  horses,  especially  underbred  ones,  whose 
heads  will  be  found  to  project  laterally,  immediately 
above  the  angles  of  the  mouth,  in  a  sudden  instead  of 
the  usual  gradual  manner  ;  and  the  width  of  the  mouth- 
piece is  therefore  insufficient  to  give  the  upper  bars, 
especially  the  rings,  the  requisite  degree  of  play ;  or 
rather,  the  latter  will  most  probably  gall  the  horse's 
cheeks  more  or  less.  There  are  two  ways  in  which 
this  may  be  readily  avoided :  first,  by  inclining  the 
upper  bars  somewhat  outward  (fig.  14,  a),  or  by  making 
the  upper  ring  movable  (fig.  14,  b)^  instead  of  its  form- 
ing a  continuation  of  the  upper  bar.  Either  of  these 
methods  will  be  found  to  answer  the  desired  end 
without  interfering  with  the  proper  action  of  the  bit, 
and  are  not  only  unobjectionable,  but  should  be  always 
resorted  to  when  necessary,  because  nothing  is  more 
common  than  to  see  unthinking  riders  reject  a  bit  whose 
mouthpiece  has  the  proper  dimensions  and  adopt  one 
that  is  a  quarter  or  half  an  inch  too  wide,  simply  be- 
cause they  find  that  the  upper  bars  do  not  fit  the  out- 
side of  the  horse's  head  ;  in  fact,  this  is  what  frequently 
leads  to  a  wrong  selection  of  bits.  People  think  of  the 
outside  and  visible  part  and  neglect  altogether  the 
much  more  important  interior  of  the  mouth  and  the 
mouthpiece. 

It  may  be  useful  to  summarise  here  the  w^hole  of  what 


184  Bits  and  Bitti)?g. 

has  been  explained  in  detail  in  the  preceding  pages. 
We  may  say,  then,  that  the  average  height  of  the  bar  of 
the  horse's  mouth  being  if  inches,  the  upper  bar  of  tlie 
bit  need  never  be  longer,  except,  perhaps,  in  very  rare 
instances  of  horses  iS  liands  high  and  upward  ;  and  this 
gives  us  32^  inches  for  the  lower  bar,  and  for  both  a  total 
of  5i  inches,  measured  from  where  the  curb-hook  rests 
in  the  upper  ring  to  where  the  lower  ring  plays  in  its 
sockets.  For  ponies  or  small  hacks  these  dimensions 
must  be  reduced  to  ij  inches  upper  bar,  3  inches  lower 
bar,  and  total  length  of  bit  4]  inches.  These  are  the 
only  fixed  dimensions  that  can  be  safely  given  ;  the  re- 
maining equally  important  ones  are  variable,  and  must 
be  ascertained  b}-  measurement  in  the  way  to  be  pres- 
ently pointed  out. 

Let  us  now  suppose  that  we  have  ascertained  the  ex- 
act width  of  the  horse's  mouth  and  also  the  proper  form 
of  the  mouthpiece  :  we  then  have  the  length  of  the  curb 
without  hooks  equal  072cc  a?id  a  quarter  the  width  of 
the  horse's  mouth,  and  the  curb-hooks  equal  in  length 
three-fourths  upper  bar  of  bit,  which  will  bring  the  total 
length  of  curb  and  hooks  up  to  once  and  a  halj"  the 
same  dimension  ;  and  it  only  remains  to  put  the  bit  and 
bridle  in  their  proper  places. 

We  have  already  shown  how  much  depends  on  the  bit 
being  placed  accurately.  A  quarter  or  even  an  eighth 
of  an  inch  higher  or  lower  makes  all  the  difference  in 
the  world.  The  headstall  or  cheekpieces  of  the  bridle 
must,  therefore,  afford  all  the  necessary  facilities  in  the 
way  of  buckles  and  straps  for  this  purpose.  Military 
bridles  and  harness  have  nearly  always  two  pairs  of  these 
— that  is,  one  pair  by  means  of  which  the  bit  is  attached 
to  the  cheekpiece  of  the  bridle  by  its  upper  rings,  and  a 
second  in  the  cheekpieces  themselves,  for  the  purpose 
of  regulating  their  length  ;  and  both  pairs  may  be  em- 
ployed to  determire  tlie  height  at  which  the  bit  is  «;us- 


The  Lever ^  the  Bit  and  Cii7-b^  etc.  1S5 

pended  in  the  horse's  mouth.  There  is  a  great  incon- 
venience and  disadvantage  in  having  a  multiplicity  of 
bridles,  and  many  civilian  bridles — if  w^e  may  use  the 
word — omit  altogether  the  first-named  pair,  the  cheek- 
pieces  being  then  sewed  directly  into  the  upper  rings  of 
the  bit.  This  we  hold  to  be  a  great  mistake,  because, 
first  of  all,  the  bit,  supposing  it  to  be  the  proper  size 
and  shape,  cannot  be  so  easily  fixed  in  its  proper  place  ; 
and,  secondly,  it  is  impossible  to  change  it  for  one  that 
does  fit  accurately,  in  the  contrary  case.  In  fact,  this 
practice  is  evidently  a  consequence  of  want  of  clear 
views  on  the  subject  of  bitting,  and,  on  the  other  hand, 
a  great  obstacle  to  the  attainment  of  the  necessary  accu- 
racy. We  hold  the  lower  pair  of  buckles  and  straps  to 
be  indispensable.  The  upper  pair  of  buckles  might  be 
more  easily  dispensed  with  if  one  single  buckle  were 
placed  on  the  top  of  the  horse's  head  between  its  ears  ; 
for  by  means  of  this  the  total  length  of  the  cheekpieces 
may  be  regulated  generally^  and  the  Jinal  adjustment 
of  the  position  of  the  bit  accomplished  by  means  of  the 
buckles  and  straps,  which  latter  should  be  pierced  with 
holes  at  intervals  of  half  an  inch.*  Some  people  will, 
however,  prefer  the  buckles  in  the  cheekpieces  ;  and  if 
so,  it  will  be  necessary  to  see  that  they  do  not  lie  higher 
than  the  angle  of  tlie  horse's  eye,  as  they  are  otherwise 
likely  to  interfere  with  the  position  of  the  forehead- 
band,  which  should,  like  every  other  part  of  the  bridle, 
including  the  throat-band,  fit  loosely,  and  cause  the  least 
possible  amount  of  discomfort  to  the  horse  consistent 
with  the  object  to  be  attained. 

The    nose-band  has  pretty   nearlv   altogether   disap- 
peared from  our  English  bridles,  which   is  also  a  mis- 

*  It  may  sometimes  be  necessary  to  let  the  bit  down  or  take  it  up 
by  a  smaller  quantity  than  the  half-inch  affords  :  in  such  cases  inter- 
mediate holes  maybe  made  ;  but  the  fewer  of  these  the  better,  as  they 
weaken  the  strap. 
16* 


1 86  Bits  a?zd  Bittins^. 


■&> 


take.  When  horses  have  been  once  perfectly  trained  to 
the  bit,  and  taken  to  it  kindly,  this  strap  may  be  dis- 
pensed with  safely,  if  people  do  not  like  the  look  of  it ; 
but,  until  this  is  the  case  the  nose-band  is  most  valuable 
as  a  means  of  preventing  the  animal  from  opening  its 
mouth  too  w^ide  and  bolting  the  bit,  or  catching  hold  of 
it  between  its  teeth — in  fact,  evading  its  action  in  one 
way  or  the  other.  It  is  very  evident  that  we  have  by 
degrees  got  rid  of  the  nose-band  because  we  did  not  un- 
derstand its  proper  use  ;  and,  when  coupled  with  the 
monstrous  bits  we  are  in  the  habit  of  using,  it  may  have 
been  found  sometimes  a  positive  inconvenience  ;  but  any 
one  that  pays  even  a  slight  attention  to  this  matter  will 
find  the  nose-band  invaluable  in  the  early  stages  of  bit- 
ting. It  must,  however,  be  put  in  the  proper  place — 
that  is  to  say,  just  across  the  nose  at  the  point  where  the 
bone  ceases  and  the  cartilage  commences  ;  and  it  should 
always  be  buckled  so  lightly  as  to  admit  of  a  proper 
amount  of  free  motion. 

We  may  now  w^ind  up  this  chapter  with  the  rules  for 
placing  the  bit  in  the  horse's  mouth.  When  the  head- 
stall has  been  adapted  generally  to  the  animal's  head  by 
means  of  the  upper  buckle  or  buckles,  the  next  step  will 
be  to  adjust  the  bit  by  means  of  the  lower  ones,  so  that 
the  mouthpiece  shall  come  to  rest  on  the  bars  of  the 
mouth  exactly  opposite  the  chin-groove,  unless,  indeed, 
some  irregular  disposition  of  the  tusks  should  render 
this  impossible,  in  which  case  it  must  be  moved  only  just 
so  much  Jilgher  as  is  absolutely  necessary  to  clear  the 
obstacle.  The  curb  may  be  then  hooked  in,  first,  of 
course,  at  the  off  side,  leaving  one  reserve  link,  then  at 
the  near  side,  leaving  tivo  such,  and  taking  care  that  it 
lies  quite  flat  in  the  chin-groove,  without  any,  even  the 
slightest,  tendency  to  mount  upward  when  the  reins  are 
drawn.  The  curb  should  never  be  quite  tight ;  there 
should  always  be  room  for  the  first  and  second  fingers 


The  Lever ^  the  Bit  and  Curh^  etc.  187 

of  the  right  hand  to  pass  flat  between  it  and  the  chin  ; 
and  by  gently  pulling  the  reins  with  the  left  hand  whilst 
the  two  fingers  of  the  right  are  in  this  position,  it  will 
be  easy  to  ascertain  whether  any  pinching  action  occurs, 
in  which  case  there  is  sure  to  be  something  wrong. 

As  to  the  measure  of  the  proper  length  of  the  curb,  we 
have  already  stated  it  ge^ierally ;  but  each  individual 
case  will  require  a  separate  adjustment,  and  if  the  links 
be  either  very  large  or  very  small,  it  will  sometimes  oc- 
cur that  the  difference  of  one  of  these  will  make  the  curb 
either  too  tight  or  too  loose  ;  we  must  then,  of  course, 
try  another  curb.  If  the  bit  is  rigid  or  stands  stiff'  on 
the  reins  being  drawn  gently,  the  curb  will  be  too  short ; 
and  on  the  pressure  being  increased,  the  horse  will 
almost  certainly  either  turn  his  mouth  askew  to  avoid 
the  griping  action  of  the  mouthpiece  or  bear  back  sud- 
denly to  escape  it  altogether :  we  therefore  give  him 
another  link,  and  drawing  the  reins  gently  as  before,  we 
obsei've  whether,  after  the  lower  bar  has  moved  through 
an  angle  of  about  eight  degrees — bringing  the  mouth- 
piece just  to  meet,  as  it  were,  the  interior  of  the  mouth 
— the  horse  gives  his  head  gently  and  gradually  in  the 
direction  of  your  hand  as  it  increases  the  pressure,  with- 
out either  poking  his  nose  or  shrinking  back.  If  this  be 
the  case  you  are  all  right ;  but  if  the  lower  bar  moves 
through  a  much  greater  angle  than  the  above — say  fif- 
teen to  twenty  degrees — before  the  horse  yields  percept- 
ibly, then  your  curb  will  be  probably  too  long. 

We  sav  probablv,  because  vou  mav.  after  shortenine: 
and  lengthening  the  curb  once  or  twice,  find  that  the 
horse  will  avoid  the  bit  in  the  first  case  or  remain  insen- 
sible to  it  in  the  second — in  fact,  you  discover  that  the 
mouthpiece  is  unsuited  ;  therefore,  in  adjusting  the  length 
of  the  curb,  you  must  take  care  to  avoid  drawing  your 
conclusions  too  hastily.  When  you  come  to  a  hitch  of 
this  kind,  lift  up  the  horse's  upper  lip  gently  with  your 


1 88  Bits  and  B  lit  lug. 

left  thumb  so  as  to  get  a  view  of  the  interior  of  his 
inoLith,  whilst  you  draw  the  reins  with  the  right  hand 
so  as  to  see  how  the  mouthpiece  lies,  whether  too  much 
or  too  little  of  its  pressure  falls  on  the  tongue — in  fact, 
whether  the  mouthpiece  is  not  in  fault ;  but  this  requires 
some  experience,  and  perhaps  the  help  of  an  instru- 
ment, of  which  we  shall  have  to  speak  in  the  next 
chapter. 

And  now  a  word  as  to  the  bridoon.  This  is,  in  the 
first  place,  an  aid  in  the  early  stages  of  training  to  facili- 
tate the  transition  from  the  snaffle  to  the  curbed  bit ; 
and  in  proportion  as  the  young  horse  becomes  familiar 
with  the  latter,  it  is  gradually  laid  aside,  and  then  be- 
comes a  '^  second  string  to  the  bow  "  in  case  of  any  acci- 
dent happening  to  the  bit  or  its  reins.  Nothing  is,  how- 
ever, commoner  than  to  see  amongst  ourselves  these  its 
well-understood  uses  completely  reversed,  and  people 
riding  about  our  streets  and  parks  holding  on  like  grim 
death  by  the  bridoon-reins,  whilst  those  belonging  to 
the  bit  dangle  about  the  horse's  neck,  to  be  caught  up 
all  of  a  sudden  if  the  horse  makes  a  bolt.  Now  this 
simply  proves  that  the  bit  is  either  so  monstrous  in 
itself,  or  so  absurdly  placed  in  the  horse's  mouth,  that 
the  rider  is  afraid  to  use  it ;  in  many  cases,  too,  his  own 
seat  is  so  unsteady,  and  he  depends  so  much  on  the 
reins  for  support,  that  the  best-fitting  bit  in  the  worid 
would  be  useless  or  dangerous  in  his  hands.  If  those 
who  really  can  ride  would  only  bit  their  horses  properly, 
they  might  take  the  bit-rein  in  their  hands  without  any 
difficulty — nay,  with  great  advantage  to  themselves,  and 
we  should  see  fewer  broken  knees  than  at  present ;  for 
it  is  frequently  owing  to  the  slovenly  way  of  shuffling 
along  close  to  the  ground,  which  horses  ridden  alto- 
gether on  the  bridoon  acquire,  that  these  are  ov»'Ing. 
As  to  the  other  class  of  would-be  riders,  it  will  perhaps 
be  better  for  them   to  take  to  the  snaffle  exclusivelv,  if 


The  Lever ^  the  Bit  arid  Curb.  etc.  1S9 

they  do  not  prefer  a  Pelham,  which  we,  however,  do 
not  recommend. 

The  bridoon  being,  as  we  have  said,  an  aid,  or  "  a 
second  string-  to  the  bow,"  sliould  never  interfere  with 
the  bit ;  therefore  it  should  be  neither  too  thick  nor  &o 
absurdlv  long  as  it  sometimes  is  ;  and  instead  of  hanging 
down  in  the  horse's  mouth  so  as  to  impede  the  action  of 
the  bit,  it  should  be  drawn  up  so  as  to  fit  lightly  into 
the  angles  of  the  lips  without  disturbing  the  natural 
position  of  the  latter  :  here  it  will  be  out  of  the  way  and 
still  perfectly  available  when  needed. 

To  conclude,  lightness^  accuracy^  easy  motion.,  a 
total  absence  of  stiffness.,  coizstraint  or  painful  action 
are  the  characteristics  of  good  bitting;  and  if  these 
be  attained.,  ready  obedience  to  the  rider's  hand  arid 
heel  ivill  be  the  result. 


CHAPTER   V. 

TAKING    MEASURE  FOR  THE  BIT — THE    MOUTH-GAUGE 
THE    TRIAL-BIT. 

ALTHOUGH  we  have  given  above  a  certain  amount 
of  permanent  dimensions,  or  such  as  are  nearly  so, 
for  the  bit,  there  still  remains  a  certain  number  of  vari- 
able ones  which  must  be  ascertained  in  each  individual 
case — that  is  to  say,  the  width  of  the  mouth,  on  which 
so  much  depends  ;  that  of  the  tongue-channel,  nearly 
equally  important ;  and,  finally,  the  relative  thickness 
of  the  tongue,  which  latter,  however,  just  because  it  is 
relative,  is  not  susceptible  of  direct  measurement. 

For  those  who  have  had  much  experience  in  this  de- 
tail, the  width  of  the  mouth,  and  consequently  that  of 
the  mouthpiece,  may  be  ascertained  with  sufficient  accu- 
racy by  puttuig  any  bit  that  is  not  too  small  into  the 
horse's  mouth,  and,  whilst  holding  it  gently  up  to  one 
side  of  the  mouth,  measuring  off  with  a  small  rule 
divided  into  inches  and  eighths  or  tenths  how  much  of 
the  mouthpiece,  if  any,  protrudes  beyond  the  side  of  the 
lips  on  the  other  side  ;  if  we  then  deduct  this  amount 
from  the  actual  dimensions  of  the  mouthpiece  w^e  at 
once  ascertain  what  those  of  the  bit  we  seek  should  be  : 
but  it  requires  some  practice  to  enable  one  to  do  this 
accurately. 

Von  Weyrother,  formerly  chief  of  the  school  of  equi- 

190 


Taking  Measure  for  the  Bit^  etc. 


191 


tation  at  Vienna,  invented  a  special  instrument  for  as- 
certaining all  the  necessary  dimensions,  and  this  should 
be  in  the  hands  of  all  those  who  have  any  number  of 
horses  to  deal  w^ith  ;  we  have  named  it,  for  want  of 
some  better  word,  the  *' mouth-gauge "  (fig.  15,  A), 
This  instrument  is  usually  made  of  steel,  and  consists 
of  a  bar  a  b — about  six  inches  long  will  suffice — fitted 
on  one  side  at  right  angles  with  a  fixed  cheekpiece  c  d^ 
of  the  form  shown  by  the  figure,  and  having  on  the 


Fig.  15. 

other  side  a  sliding  cheekpiece  e  f  of  the  same  shape 
and  dimensions  (six  inches  long),  fitted  with  a  screw 
for  fixing  it  where  required.  This  bar  ^  b  is  made  oval 
in  the  transverse  section,  wnth  the  greater  axis  about 
one  inch,  in  order  to  displace  the  lips  nearly  as  the 
mouthpiece  does,  and  is  usually  graduated  throughout, 
but  it  will  evidently  suffice  to  do  this  with  the  fourth 
and  fifth  inches. 

It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  point  out  that  if  this  gauge 


192  Bits  and  Bitting. 

be  placed  in  the  horse's  moutli  like  a  bit,  with  the  bar 
a  b  ^\.  exactly  the  proper  point  (opposite  the  chin- 
groove),  the  fixed  cheekpiece  c  d  being  then  held  gently 
up  to  the  oiT  side  of  the  mouth  (the  operator  facing  the 
horse's  forehead),  the  sliding  one  ^y* may  be  shoved  up 
just  close  enough  to  the  cheek,  at  the  near  side,  not  to 
displace  the  lips  ;  and  then  fixing  it  w^ith  the  screw 
and  removing  the  gauge,  we  can  read  oflfthe  dimension 
of  the  width  of  our  mouthpiece  from  the  scale  engraved 
on  a  b. 

The  figure  shows  further  a  rod  g  h  fitted  to  slide  up 
and  down  the  movable  cheekpiece  ef^  which  is  gradu- 
ated into  inches  and  eighths  or  tenths  on  its  lower 
limb.  This  contrivance  enables  us  to  measure  the 
height  of  the  bar  of  the  mouth,  which  is  done  in  the 
following  manner :  The  instrument,  adjusted  to  the 
proper  width  of  the  horse's  mouth,  is  placed  as  before, 
with  the  bar  a  b  exactly  opposite  the  chin-groove,  but 
ti7iderneath  the  tongue^  and  is  then  wheeled  round  on 
its  own  axis  till  the  upper  limbs  of  the  cheekpieces 
stand  nearl}'  perpendicular  to  the  general  line  of  the 
horse's  nose.  This,  of  course,  brings  its  lower  limbs 
in  the  opposite  direction  toward  the  neck,  and  the  rod 
^  i^  is  then  gently  shoved  up  till  it  presses  lightly  into 
the  chin-groove,  taking  care  that  the  gauge  stands 
square,  and  that  the  mouthpiece  lies  equably  on  both 
bars  of  the  mouth.  The  rod  g  h  is  then  screwed  fast, 
while  the  screw  of  the  cheekpiece  e  J"\s  loosened  alto- 
gether, so  that  the  latter  may  be  removed  without 
disturbing  the  rod  g  h;  we  then  read  off  the  height  of 
the  bar  on  the  lower  limb  of  ef^  and  have  all  the  neces- 
sary dimensions. 

It  would  be  quite  possible  to  take  another  measure- 
ment— namely,  that  of  the  thickness  of  the  tongue,  by 
placing  the  bar  a  b  over  that  organ  ;  but  it  has  been 
alreadj^  shown  that  it  is  its  relative  and  not  absolute 


I 


Takn?g  Measure  for  the  Bit^  etc,  193 

thickness  we  want  to  know;  and  that,  moreover,  we 
must  take  into  account  the  temperament  and  "build" 
of  the  whole  animal  when  we  set  about  determining 
w^hat  degree  of  relative  pressure  should  be  borne  by  the 
bars  of  the  mouth  and  the  tongue  respectively ;  so  that 
this  proceeding  would  lead  to  no  useful  result. 

Even  those  who  have  had  most  experience  will 
sometimes  find  themselves  at  fault  if  they  rely  merely 
on  measurement ;  and  Lieutenant  Klatte,  a  Prussian 
instructor  in  equitation  at  Berlin,  many  years  ago  in- 
vented for  this  very  reason  what  is  known  as  the  "  trial- 
bit"  (fig.  15,  B^.  This  affords  us  at  once  the  means 
of  ascertaining  the  proper  bit  for  every  horse  practically. 
There  are  a  certain  number  of  spare  mouthpieces  which 
maybe  fixed  in  succession  into  the  sidepieces  of  the  bit, 
their  width  being  easily  adjusted  by  means  of  a  number 
of  small  plates,  /  /,  of  one-tenth  of  an  inch  thickness, 
removable  at  pleasure  from  the  inside  to  the  outside  of 
the  sidepiece  ;  and  having  once  ascertained  the  width 
of  the  mouth,  we  may  then,  having  also  ascertained  the 
height  of  the  bars  of  the  mouth  with  the  gauge  de- 
scribed in  a  preceding  paragraph,  proceed  to  shift  the 
sliding  ringpieces  r  r  till  the  upper  bar  has  attained  the 
prescribed  length,  after  which  the  curb  with  its  hooks 
are  fitted,  and  then  there  only  remains  to  slide  the  rein- 
rings  s  s  up  or  down  till  the  proper  proportion  of  the 
lower  bar  has  been  attained.  Of  course,  as  we  go  on 
from  step  to  step  with  the  adjustment,  the  straps  of  the 
headstall,  and  subsequently  those  of  the  reins,  must  be 
buckled  into  the  respective  rings  ;  and  when,  as  a  final 
step,  the  bridoon  has  been  fitted  and  the  curb  hooked, 
the  horse  may  be  mounted  and  tried. 

In  making  this    trial,  those  who    have  hitherto  not 

paid  much  attention  to  the  subject  will  do  well  to  take 

account  of  the  whole  circumstances  of  the  ca^e — the 

temperament,  build,  etc.,  of  the  horse,  the  uses  to  which 

17 


194  j^^Vj  and  Bitting. 

it  is  to  be  devoted,  and  whether  it  has  ever  been  bitted 
before  or  not.  If  the  trial-bit  be  really  well  adjusted 
and  the  rider  have  a  good  hand,  the  horse  will  at  once 
take  to  the  bit,  or  at  least  give  a  promise  of  doing  so, 
and  nothing  more  will  be  required  than  to  read  off  all 
the  dimensions  from  the  trial-bit  in  order  to  have  a 
proper  one  constructed  ;  if,  on  the  other  hand,  its  action 
be  found  unsatisfactory,  the  lower  rings,  the  mouth- 
piece or  the  upper  bar  must  be  shifted  till  it  does  suit. 

It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  greatest  defect  a 
bit  can  have  is  to  fall  through  or  capsize — that  is  to  say, 
describe  a  large  circle  before  the  horse  shows  itself  sen- 
sible to  the  lever  action.  When  this  takes  place  to  the 
extent  of  the  lower  bar  forming  nearly  or  altogether  a 
straight  line  with  the  rein,  there  is  no  lever  action  what- 
ever, and  a  good  snaffle  would  be  more  powerful.  This 
falling  through  may  depend  on  the  curb  being  too  long, 
or  on  the  upper  bar  being  absolutely  too  short,  or  on 
the  lower  one  being  proportionately  too  long,  especially 
in  cases  where  the  conformation  and  dimensions  of  the 
mouth  absolutely  require  a  very  short  upper  bar,  when 
it  may  be  necessary  to  make  the  lower  one  somewhat 
less  than  twice  the  length  of  the  former,  according  to 
the  rule  we  have  given  ;  but  such  cases  are  few  in  num- 
ber, and  must  be  regarded  as  exceptions — it  seemed, 
however,  advisable  to  mention  them. 

The  next  greatest  fault  is  when  the  bit  stands  stiff  in 
the  horse's  mouth  ;  and  this  will  be  generally  found  to 
proceed  from  the  curb  being  too  tight  or  the  upper  bar 
being  too  long,  which  latter  always  produces  the  third 
fault — the  mounting  up  of  the  curb  out  of  the  chin- 
groove. 

In  conclusion,  a  word  as  to  horses  acquiring  the  trick 
of  getting  their  tongues  over  the  mouthpiece.  This  is  a 
great  inconvenience,  as  it  renders  the  action  of  the  whole 
machine  uncertain.    There  is  really  no  other  method  of 


Taking  JSIeasure  for  the  Bit^  etc,  195 

cure  except  careful  bitting  and  good  riding,  which  may 
and  often  does  by  degrees  lessen  the  evil,  if  not  wholly 
remedy  it ;  and  these  means  will  more  frequently  suc- 
ceed with  young  than  with  old  horses, yc»r  it  is  almost 
always  a  consequence  of  bad  bitting  in  the  frst  in- 
stance. Our  advice  would  be  to  ride  the  horse  for  a 
certain  time  on  a  snaffle,  and  then  a  very  carefully  fitted 
bit  may  be  put  into  its  mouth  with  a  fair  chance  of  suc- 
cess ;  but  there  are  some  horses  that  never  forget  this 
trick  when  once  acquired. 

There  is  another  trick  which  is  not  so  inconvenient, 
although  it  is  very  unsightly — namely,  when  the  horse 
lolls  out  its  tongue  either  directly  in  front  or,  as  more 
usually  happens,  to  one  side.  This,  too,  is  usually  a 
consequence  of  bad,  that  is,  too  severe,  bitting,  and,  with 
carriage-horses,  of  the  bearing-rein  being  too  short.  In 
many  cases  a  suitable  bit  will  suffice,  combined  with  a 
loose  bearing-rein,  where  that  has  been  the  cause,  and 
the  horse  will  be  immediately  lighter  in  the  hand. 
Sometimes,  however,  this  fails,  and  the  only  remedy 
that  remains  is  to  attach  a  "  fringe"  to  the  mouthpiece, 
which,  hanging  down  on  the  tongue,  produces  a  tick- 
ling sensation  that  makes  the  animal  draw  back  its 
tongue.  However,  we  should  be  deceiving  our  readers 
in  leading  them  to  suppose  that  all  cases  are  curable  ; 
for  some  horses  will  persist  in  this  ugly  trick  despite  of 
everything  one  can  do.  Any  attempt  to  tie  the  tongue 
in  this  or  the  former  cases  will  be  found  useless  and 
probably  dangerous. 

Nothing  is  more  certain  than  that  every  horse  will  go 
much  better  with  a  well-fitting  bit  properly  placed  than 
with  the  contrary ;  further,  that  many  otherwise  dan- 
gerous horses  become  perfectly  tractable  if  properly 
bitted  ;  and,  finally,  that  inattention  to  this  subject  is 
one  of  the  most  frequent  causes  of  restiveness.  It,  how- 
ever, by  no  means  follows  that  every  rider  should  neces- 


196 


Bits  and  Bitting, 


sarily  use  a  curb-bit.  For  hunting  and  racing  purposes 
the  snaffle  will  be  generally  preferable.  Moreover,  bad 
or  indifferent  riders  had  better  not  use  the  bit  at  all ;  but 
when,  from  whatever  cause,  it  appears  desirable  to  use 
one,  let  it  be  by  all  means  a  well-fitting  bit,  carefully 
adapted  to  the  animal. 


PART  III. 

RESTII^ENESS:   ITS  PRETEN- 
TION AND  CURE. 


CHAPTER   I. 

HOW    TO    RENDER    HORSES    OBEDIENT. 

THERE  exists,  no  doubt,  many  horses  that  deserve 
the  epithet  vicious,  in  the  proper  signification  of 
the  term  ;  they  are,  however,  by  no  means  so  numerous 
in  proportion  as  many  people  suppose,  and  it  is  of  great 
practical  importance  that  simple  restiveness  or  disobe- 
dience should  not  be  confounded  with  the  peculiar 
temperament  or  disposition  which  constitutes  a  truly 
vicious  horse.  Such  an  animal's  temper  can  scarcely  be 
changed,  although  it  may  be  dominated  by  force — as, 
for  instance,  by  Mr.  Rarey's  method,  which,  by  the  way, 
was  known  to  and  practised  by  Major  Balassa,  of  the 
Austrian  cavalry,  forty  years  ago  ;  but  the  overawed 
and  subdued  brute  is  not  thereby  rendered  a  useful  and 
docile  servant,  nor  is  any  clue  afforded  us  for  overcom- 
ing special  forms  of  restiveness  or  insubordination  we 
may  have  to  deal  with  :  and  so  the  horse-tamer,  after 
attracting  an  undue  share  of  public  attention  for  a 
moment,  finds  himself  in  the  end  neglected  and  for- 
gotten. 

There  is,  too,  a  danger  in  all  these  methods — namely, 
the  natural  tendency  they  have  to  induce  riders  to  rely 
on  forcible  measures  in  all  cases,  the  result  of  which  is 
but  too  frequently  to  convert  a  simply  restive  horse  into 

199 


200        Restivefiess :  its  Prcvc7itio7i  a?id  Cure. 

a  decidedly  vicious  one,  by  awakening  the  devil  that 
slumbers  within.  I^or  it  vuist  ?irver  he  forgotten  that 
in  the  etid  the  horse  is  stro7tger  than  the  man;  that 
there  is  a  very  great  danger  of  this  becoming  quite 
clear  to  the  former.,  %vhen  mere  force  comes  to  be  op- 
posed to  force;  and  that  this  very  consciousness  is 
what  constit2ites  restiveness.,  a?id^  if  exasperated  by 
cruel  treatment.,  vice.,  pzire  and  simple. 

It  is  therefore  necessary,  in  the  first  place,  to  know 
clearly  what  one  has  to  contend  with — whether  with 
real  vice,  or  merely  with  simple  insubordination :  the 
former,  if  curable  at  all,  can  only  be  dealt  with  suc- 
cessfully by  professional  riders,  who  possess  the  proper 
means  and  appliances  ;  the  latter  ought  to  be  within  the 
scope  of  a  great  number  of  horsemen,  if  they  would  only 
abstain  from  violence  and  adopt  rational  methods.  The 
French  say,  when  speaking  of  a  horse  that  shows  rest- 
iveness,  ''  il  se  defend" — he  defends  himself.  There  is 
much  truth  in  tliis  expression,  and  it  is  one  that  riders 
should  constantly  bear  in  mind,  for  insubordination  is 
most  commonly  the  result  of  something  having  been 
demanded  from  the  horse  that  it  either  did  not  know 
how  to  do  or  was  unable  to  perform  ;  and  the  very  first 
step  to  be  taken  in  all  cases  is,  to  endeavor  to  ascertain 
exactly  under  what  circumstances  the  disobedience  was 
first  manifested  and  is  usually  shown. 

Before  we  atfix  the  stigma  of  vice  to  a  horse,  let  us, 
therefore,  consider  for  a  moment  what  the  poor  thing 
might  with  fairness  retort,  and  the  words  ignorance, 
timidity  and  brutality  will  immediately  suggest  them- 
selves ;  for,  in  truth,  want  of  judgment  as  to  what  a 
horse  can  fairly  do,  want  of  decision  and  promptitude  in 
demanding  this,  or  unnecessary  violence  in  enforcing  a 
demand,  especially  an  unreasonable  one,  are  almost 
always  the  first  causes  of  restiveness.  Mankind  in  its 
arrogance  has  thought  fit  to  make  the  ass  an  emblem 


Uoiv  to  Reiider  Morses  Obedient,  201 

of  stupidity,  and  why?  Is  it  not  because  it  seldom  if 
ever  opposes  anything  more  than  passive  resistance  to 
the  tyranny  of  its  oppressors  ?  it  wants  tiie  strength  and 
the  active  courage  that  would  enable  it  to  act  aggress- 
ively and  deserve  the  title  of  vicious  enjoyed  by  its  near 
relative  the  zebra,  whose  indocility  is  not  considered  to 
be  stupidity.  We  doubt  much  whether  the  horse  is 
really  more  intelligent  than  the  ass ;  it  has  greater 
strength  and  agility,  and  a  more  active  courage,  which, 
if  it  knew  how  to  use,  would  enable  it  to  set  mankind 
at  defiance  equally  as  well  as  the  zebra  ;  and  it  argues 
a  certain  amount  of  stupidity  when  so  powerful  an  ani- 
mal suffers  itself  to  be  converted,  as  it  often  is,  into  the 
abject  slave  of  a  miserable  taskmaster.  The  intelligence 
of  the  horse  is,  however,  sufficient  to  enable  it  to  find 
out  ^■ery  soon  whether  its  rider  be  or  be  not  deficient  in 
that  self-same  quality  or  in  courage  ;  and,  in  the  former 
case,  the  consciousness  of  superior  strength  encourages 
it  to  use  this  ''  il  se  defend" — that  is  to  say,  it  sets  the 
rider  at  defiance  and  turns  restive. 

There  is  another  thing  to  be  considered  with  regard 
to  the  horse's  character :  it  loves  to  exercise  its  powers, 
and  it  possesses  a  great  spirit  of  emulation  ;  it  likes 
variety  of  scene  and  amusement ;  and  under  a  rider  that 
understands  how  to  indulge  it  in  all  this  without  over- 
taxing its  powers,  will  work  willingly  to  the  last  gasp, 
which  is  what  entitles  it  to  the  name  of  a  noble  and 
generous  animal.  Now,  while  over-exertion,  when 
unfit,  will  very  frequently  make  horses  refuse  work,  on 
the  other  hand,  deficiency  of  exercise  and  constantly 
riding  the  same  dull  round,  either  alone  or  in  company 
with  other  horses,  will  give  rise  to  a  whole  string  of 
evils  ;  as,  for  instance,  refusing  to  go  any  but  a  certain 
way,  or  to  leave  their  stable,  or  clinging  to  other  horses 
they  meet  with,  etc.  ;  and  this  is  just  the  reason  why  so 
many  cases  of  restiveness  may  be  traced  to  the  stupidity 


202        Rest{ve?tess  :  its  Prevention  and  Cure, 

or  pig-headedness  of  a  groom.  Horses  don't  like  to  be 
ennuye^  and  will  rather  stick  at  home  than  go  out  to  be 
bored  ;  they  like  amusement,  variety  and  society  ;  give 
them  their  share  of  these,  but  never  in  a  pedantic  way, 
and  avoid  getting  into  a  groove  of  any  kind,  either  as 
to  time  or  place,  especially  with  young  animals.  It  is 
evident  that  all  these  things  must  be  taken  into  account 
and  receive  due  attention,  whether  it  be  our  object  to 
prevent  or  to  get  rid  of  some  bad  habit  a  horse  may 
have  acquired  ;  and  a  little  reflection  will  generally  suf- 
fice to  point  out  the  means  of  remedying  something 
that,  if  left  to  itself,  would  grow  into  a  confirmed  habit, 
or  if  attacked  with  the  energy  of  folly  and  violence, 
would  suddenly  culminate  in  the  grand  catastrophe  of 
vestiveness. 

The  method  according  to  which  a  restive  horse  has 
been  originally  handled  must  be  also  taken  into  consid- 
eration before  one  can  form  a  sound  judgment  as  to  the 
best  method  of  cure,  as  it  makes  an  immense  difference 
in  this  respect  whether  the  animal  has  been  treated  on 
the  English  plan  of  merely  gradually  "habituating"  it 
to  go  in  the  manner  desired  and  leaving  it  very  much 
to  its  own  will  and  pleasure  to  do  so,  or  whether  the 
Continental  mode  has  been  adopted  of  endeavoring  to 
obtain,  by  more  stringent  and  systematic  means,  a  per- 
fect mastery  over  its  movements  in  the  first  place. 
Eachof  these  methods  has  its  own  peculiar  advantages, 
and,  as  regards  the  prevention  and  cure  of  restiveness, 
disadvantages  also.  The  English  plan  is,  no  doubt, 
much  less  likely  than  the  other  to  lead  directly  to  con- 
flicts, simply  because  it  avoids  them,  but  it  does  not 
afford  that  degree  of  control  over  the  horse's  movements 
that  is  indispensable  for  combating  insubordination  suc- 
cessfully ;  and  if  the  horse  does  slip  into  bad  habits, 
the  temptation  to  use  violent  measures,  which  some- 
rimes  succeed,  but  as  frequently  drive  things  to  extremi- 


How  to  Render  Horses  Obedient.  203 

ties,  is  very  pressing.  In  such  cases  there  is  no  other 
remedy  than  to  commence  the  handhng  de  novo^  which 
is  a  very  troublesome  and  not  always  successful  opera- 
tion, especially  in  the  case  of  aged  horses,  for  such 
resist,  and  very  frequently  resent,  every  attempt  to  gain 
that  perfect  command  over  their  movements  without 
which  a  cure  is  hopeless,  unless  the  greatest  judgment 
and  patience  be  brought  to  bear  on  them.  It  was  to 
English  horses  of  this  class,  when  taken  to  the  Conti- 
nent, that  reference  was  made  in  the  introduction  to 
this  little  book. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  Continental  or  riding-school 
system,  aiming,  as  it  does,  at  complete  mastery  over 
the  propelling  power — that  is,  the  horse's  hind  legs — 
will,  if  hurried  or  injudiciously  employed,  very  possi- 
bly tend  directly  to  call  forth  the  spirit  of  resistance  and 
insubordination  ;  for  it  is  precisely  this  control  over 
their  hind  legs  that  horses  dislike  and  seek  to  escape 
from  with  the  greatest  pertinacity  and  cunning,  and  it 
is  only  by  almost  imperceptible  degrees  that  it  can  be 
attained  when  desirable.  For  the  correction  of  insub- 
ordination it  is,  however,  not  only  desirable,  but  indis- 
pensable ;  and  it  is  therefore,  generally  speaking,  a 
comparatively  much  easier  task  to  bring  back  truants 
originally  handled  in  this  manner  to  habits  of  obedience, 
than  those  that  have  been  accustomed  in  their  youth  to 
the  English  laissez  faire  method. 

It  would  be  very  easy,  perhaps  more  to  the  taste  of  a 
certain  class  of  readers,  to  lay  down  certain  rules  for 
this  or  that  form  of  restiveness,  and  say,  do  this  if  a 
horse  rears,  and  that  if  he  rubs  your  knees  against  a 
wall  or  insists  on  going  home  when  you  want  to  have 
a  ride,  but  we  have  no  faith  in  ready  cut-and-dry 
receipts,  and  abhor  all  empiricism  most  thoroughly ; 
moreover,  there  is  plenty  of  it  to  be  found,  by  those 
who  prefer  it,  in  most  books  on  this  subject.     The  real 


204 


Restiveness:  its  Prevention  a?zd  Cure. 


truth  of  the  matter  is  this  :  whatever  particular  form  of 
restiveness  a  horse  may  have  recourse  to  "  to  defend 
itself,"  the  one  great  patent  fact  in  all  cases  is  disobedi- 
ence ;  and  therefore  the  one  great  object  to  be  attained 
is  complete  mastery  over  the  animal's  movements,  and 
not  merely  over  its  body  by  means  of  straps  and  ropes. 

We  have  stated  that  the  English  system  of  handling 
young  horses  is  less  likely  of  itself  to  produce  insubor- 
dination directly,  v^hile  the  school  system  may,  if 
abused,  tend  to  this  result.  On  the  other  hand,  we 
must  rely  on  the  latter  for  the  correction  of  restiveness  ; 
and  the  object  of  this  chapter  being  to  endeavor  to  show 
how  vice  may  be  prevented  and  cured^  it  seems  advisa- 
ble to  lay  before  the  reader  a  brief  general  sketch  of 
both  systems,  pointing  out,  as  we  proceed,  what  is  use- 
ful for  our  purpose  in  each,  as  also  the  means  by  which 
the  one  may  be  made  to  work  into  the  other. 

In  the  English  method  the  first  step  is  usually  to  put 
a  very  thick,  and  consequently  a  very  gently-acting, 
snaffle  into  the  young  horse's  mouth,  over  which  a 
cavesson  is  placed  ;  a  surcingle  is  then  buckled  round 
the  animal's  body,  to  the  rings  of  which,  right  and  left, 
the  snaffle-reins  are  attached  loosely,  but  still  short 
enough  to  keep  the  neck  and  head  nearly  straight  and 
encourage  the  animal  to  lean  on  the  mouthpiece.  A 
judicious  horse-breaker  will  then  lead  the  young  horse 
about,  at  first  in  a  quiet  place,  and  gradually  on  to 
roads,  etc.,  where  various  objects  present  themselves, 
as  horses,  vehicles,  houses,  etc.,  to  which  his  pupil 
becomes  accustomed — a  matter  of  great  importance,  as 
many  accidents  occur  where  a  young  one  that  has 
scarcely  learned  to  tolerate  a  burden  on  its  back  is 
brought,  under  a  rider,  all  of  a  sudden  in  contact  with 
strange  objects  and  imaccustomed  noises.  Moreover, 
the  horse  oecomes  habituated  to  follow  the  trainer,  and 
obey  the    lounge   and    reins  in  a  gradual    and    gentle 


I 


How  to  Render  Horses  Obedient,  205 

manner,  and  a  good  understanding  is  soon  established 
between  them. 

And  this,  be  it  remarked,  is  a  method  seldom  prac- 
ticed by  school-riders  or  in  military  establishments,  the 
consequence  of  which  is,  that  the  young  horse,  when 
trained  ever  so  comj^letely  in  the  riding-school,  has  to 
undergo  a  new  course  of  instruction  when  it  becomes 
necessary  to  take  it  out  on  the  roads  and  streets,  and 
frequently  gets  into  messes  that  undo  almost  all  that 
had  been  previously  done. 

Here,  too,  we  find  a  practical  hint  for  the  treatment 
of  full-grown  horses  that  shy  at  particular  objects  and 
sounds,  or  object  to  passing  certain  spots.  Treat  them 
as  the  English  trainer  does  his  young  ones :  lead  them 
about  as  described  above,  and  reward  them  for  their 
docility  with  a  bit  of  bread,  sugar  or  something  of  the 
sort ;  you  will  thus  avoid  all  conflicts,  the  danger  and 
evil  consequences  of  which  are  enhanced  a  thousand- 
fold if  you  attempt  to  mount  your  horse  under  such 
circumstances.  Of  course,  when  shyness  arises  from 
defective  vision,  which  is  often  the  case,  this  method 
will  be  of  no  avail. 

But  to  continue  :  After  a  day  or  two  the  trainer  puts 
a  saddle  on  the  horse  and  the  surcingle  over  it,  and 
will  then  soon  proceed  to  lounge  it,  which  he  generally 
does  single-handed,  a  point  to  be  borne  in  mind.  For 
general  purposes  he  will  endeavor,  by  gentle  means,  to 
get  the  young  horse  to  settle  down  into  a  trot  as  soon 
as  possible,*  and  in  proportion  as  the  animal  takes 
kindly  to  trotting,  his  trainer  will  shorten  the  snaffle- 
reins  somewhat,  so  as  to  encourage  the  animal  to  lean 
more  and  more  on  the  bit,  taking  care,  however,  not  to 
make  them  so  short  as  to  prevent  the  horse  stretching 
itself  well  out,  and  bringing  the  propelling  action  of  the 

*  The  trainer  of  race-horses  does  not  wish  this,  of  course. 
18 


2o6        Restive7iess :  its  Preve7tilon  and  Cure, 

pasterns  of  its  hind  legs  into  play.*  The  first  lounging 
is  always  done  on  a  large  circle  :  first,  because,  if  the 
horse  does  canter  or  gallop  wildly,  there  is  less  danger  ; 
and  secondly,  because  the  trot  will  be  longer  and  more 
energetic,  and  the  leaning  on  the  mouthpiece  more 
complete.  The  object  of  this  procedure  is  to  encourage 
the  horse  to  throw  its  weight  well  forward,  go  ahead 
resolutely  and  use  its  hind  legs  altogether  as  propellers. 
It  may  be  well  to  give  a  caution  here :  grass  land  or 
clay,  when  trodden  hard,  if  moist,  is  to  be  avoided — 
the  danger  of  slipping  is  too  great;  sand  or  tanner's 
bark,  if  available — if  not,  a  piece  of  dry,  fresh-harrowed 
field — is  preferable. 

There  are  certain  forms  of  restiveness,  or  rather  kinds 
of  tricks,  that  insubordinate  horses  try  on  and  succeed 
with,  because  they  have  never  been  brought  to  have  a 
proper  leaning  on  the  mouthpiece,  of  whatever  kind 
that  may  be.  For  instance,  they  will  get  "  inside"  the 
action  of  the  bridle  altogether,  so  that  the  rider  cannot 
keep  them  straight,  and  they  will  then  turn  sharp  round 
and  bolt  o?l  in  another  direction.  When,  therefore,  one 
finds  a  horse  succeed  in  keeping  permanently  "  behind 
the  hand,"  as  it  is  called,  the  safest  and  surest  way  of 
bringing  it  up  well  to  the  mouthpiece  again  is  by  a  few 
lessons  on  tiie  lounge  after  this  fashion,  aided  by  judicious 
demonstrations  with  the  whip,  and  remembering  to  use 
large  circles. 

It  will  be  unnecessary  to  go  into  the  detail  of  the  first 
backing  of  the  young  horse,  and  of  the  precautions  that 
should  be  taken  to  avoid  exciting  its  fear  or  anger ;  and 
we  therefore  go  on  to  the  method  of  handling  under 
the  rider.  The  great  object  all  English  horse-breakers 
have  in  view  is,  to  bring  their  horses  to  go  straight 
ahead  and  cover  as   much   ground  as  possible ;    they 

*We  shall  see  further  on  that  the  school  system  demands  this 
from  the  hocks. 


Hozu  to  Render  Horses  Obedient.  207 

never  think  for  a  moment  of  making  them  handy,  in 
the  military  sense  of  the  term — that  is  to  say,  capable 
of  circling  to  the  right  or  left  in  all  their  paces,  chang- 
ing these  and  their  feet  without  an  apparent  effort,  etc., 
for  nothing  of  this  is  required  of  them.  The  methods 
they  employ  are,  it  must  be  said,  perfectly  suited  to  the 
object  they  propose  to  attain,  the  rider's  weight  being 
thrown  either  directly  or  indirectly  on  the  horse's  fore- 
hand, which,  as  has  been  shown  in  the  first  part  of  this 
work,  favors  progression  on  straight  lines.  The  saddle 
is  generally  for  this  reason  put  well  forward,  the  girths 
coming  round  the  anterior  part  of  the  chest.  Now, 
although  the  saddle  is  placed  forward,  the  stirrups 
being  usually  very  short,  the  body  of  the  rider,  from  the 
hips  upward,  is  in  most  cases  farther  back  than  the 
perpendicular  line  through  the  fourteenth  vertebra,  fig. 
4 ;  but  from  the  hips  downward  the  legs  are  brought 
forward  toward  the  horse's  shoulders,  and  the  main  re- 
liance for  the  seat  is  with  that  portion  of  the  leg  from 
the  knee  down  to  the  ankle,  in  the  hollow  close  behind 
the  horse's  shoulders ;  therefore,  although  the  rider's 
body  is  actually  farther  back  than  what  we  have  de- 
scribed to  be  the  normal  position,  the  direction  in  which 
his  weight  is  thrown  by  each  impulse  received  from  the 
horse's  hind  legs,  is  diagonally  forward  on  to  the  fore 
legs,  and  not  in  the  vertical  line  shown  by  the  arrows 
in  fig.  4.  Moreover,  the  rider's  legs  exercise  in  this 
their  usual  position  all  the  influence  derivable  from 
mere  pressure  or  from  the  spur,  wholly  on  the  horse's 
fore  legs,  leaving  the  hind  legs  free  from  all  control, 
for  they  almost  always  come  too  late  when  the  rider 
endeavors  to  meet  the  horse's  croup  or  fix  its  hind- 
quarters. 

The  system  of  bridling  and  bitting  is  also  perfectly 
suited  to  the  object  kept  steadily  in  view,  the  horse's 
head  being  kept  low,  if  necessary,  with  the  martingal, 


2oS        Rcstlvcncss :  its  Prevention  and  Cure, 

which,  of  course,  as  has  been  shown,  tlirows  an  addi- 
tional portion  of  the  weight  on  the  fore  legs.  When, 
at  a  later  period  too,  a  curbed  bit  is  used,  this  is  put  so 
high  up  in  the  horse's  mouth  that  the  action  of  the  curb 
becomes  more  painful  than  that  of  the  mouthpiece  (see 
Part  II.  of  this  book),  and  consequently  induces  the 
horse  rather  to  lean  on  the  bit  than  yield  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  rider's  hand.  Finally,  this  latter  is,  both 
with  the  snaffle  and  the  curb-bit,  held  as  low  as  the 
horse's  withers  will  permit  and  quite  steady — that  is  to 
say,  without  much  varying  the  pull  on  the  reins.  Of 
course  a  judicious  breaker  or  trainer  will  endeavor  to 
prevent  his  horse  acquiring  a  dead  hard  leaning  on  the 
bit,  and  seek  to  restrain  this  within  the  bounds  of  a 
firm,  decided  one.  Under  the  circumstances,  however, 
this  is  not  an  easy  matter,  and  is  precisely  the  rock  on 
which  so  many  riders  split,  who  then  have  recourse  to 
sawing,  which  frequently  becomes  the  primary  invita- 
tion to  restiveness. 

We  may  sum  up  the  whole  by  saying  that  the  English 
method  of  training  young  horses  consists  in  doing  the 
whole  work  on  the  forehand,  leaving  the  backhand  al- 
most totally  uncontrolled  to  perform  the  simple  function 
of  propulsion — for  all  the  trotting  and  galloping  work 
is  done  on  straight  lines  ;  and  there  can  be  no  doubt 
that,  where  merely  go-ahead,  straightforward  work  is 
demanded,  this  system  is  perfectly  judicious.  It  is,  how- 
ever, another  question,  and  one  already  sufficiently  en- 
tered into  in  previous  chapters,  whether  its  application 
be  not  too  one-sided,  for  all  saddle-horses  are  not  required 
to  do  this  sort  of  work  ;  and  it  is  positively  objection- 
able in  this  respect,  that  it  uses  up  the  horse's  fore  legs 
with  frightful  rapidity  and  to  an  extent  that  none  but 
English  purses  can  endure. 

It  is,  however,  with  its  bearings  on  the  subject  of  the 
prevention  and  cure  of  vice  that  we  have  here  to  do. 


How  to  Rertdcr  Horses  Obedic7tt.  209 

Now  there  are  certain  forms  of  insubordination,  or  rest- 
iveness,  in  which  horses  depend  on  their  forehand — 
others  again,  and  by  far  the  greater  number,  in  which 
they  depend  on  their  hind  legs — for  the  purpose  of  de- 
fying the  rider  ;  amongst  the  latter  we  may  specify,  for 
instance,  rearing.  Considering  the  whole  rationale  of 
the  English  system  attentively,  one  is  therefore  not  sur- 
prised to  find  that  the  forms  of  restiveness  in  which 
horses  use  chiefly  their  hind  legs  grow  very  naturally 
out  of  this  system,  which  is  unfit  for  either  their  pre- 
vention or  cure  zvithoiit  soine  fni'ther  aid.  We  would 
not  be  supposed  to  condemn  this  system  altogether  or 
unconditionally ;  on  the  contrary,  we  have  already 
pointed  out  some  of  its  advantages,  and  shall  now  pro- 
ceed to  show  that  it  may  be  made  great  use  of,  both  as 
a  preventive  and  remedy.  As  regards  the  former,  for 
instance,  it  aflbrds  the  only  safe  means  of  utilizing 
horses  that  have  weak  hind  quarters,  or  defects  of  the 
hind  legs.  Many  such  animals  would,  if  treated  accord- 
ing to  the  school  system,  be  soon  rendered  either  total 
cripples  or  incurably  vicious :  whereas,  by  a  judicious 
application  of  the  English  method,  many  a  young  horse 
gains  time  for  the  hind  quarters  and  legs  to  develop 
themselves,  and  becomes  in  the  end  capable  of  doing 
even  military  work. 

As  to  the  cure  of  restiveness,  the  English  method  has 
this  value.  The  first  step  to  be  taken  with  a  restive 
horse,  before  any  attempt  can  be  made  at  mastering  its 
hind  legs,  is  to  get  it  to  move  sofneJiow.,  for  it  is  only 
when  in  motion  that  the  rider  can  get  at  it.  Now,  al- 
though it  would  be  worse  than  useless  to  attempt  to  make 
a  horse  go  under  precisely  the  same  circumstances  of 
time  and  place,  etc.,  under  which  it  has  refused  obedi- 
ence, still,  by  altering  these  circumstances,  and  placing 
it  under  quite  different  ones,  we  can  usually  succeed  in 
this.  For  instance,  as  has  been  already  mentioned,  we 
18*  0 


21  o        Restivcness :  its  Prevention  and  Cure. 

can  take  a  horse  that  proves  restive  on  the  road  into  a 
ploughed  field,  and  lounging  it  on  a  wide  circle,  compel 
it  to  go  w^ithout  risking  a  conflict  of  authority  in  which 
we  might  probably  have  the  worst  of  it.  Or  we  may 
take  the  same  animal  into  some  enclosed  space — a  riding- 
school,  for  instance — where  it  sees  that  escape  is  impossi- 
ble, and  there,  after  having  perhaps  first  lounged  it,  get  on 
its  back  and  ride  it  quietly.  Under  such  circumstances, 
to  attempt  to  screw  it  into  a  particular  form,  or  endeavor 
to  apply  school  methods  directly,  would  most  probably 
end  in  a  fresh  display  of  insubordination,  and  we  should 
find  ourselves  pretty  nearly  at  the  end  of  our  tether,  and 
without  any  further  resource.  The  great  thing  is  to  get 
the  horse  to  go  somehow — if  only  in  a  walk  or  a  jog- 
trot, no  matter  :  if  we  can  only  get  thus  far,  half  the  battle 
is  won,  and  by  degrees  we  get  into  a  good  smart  regular 
trot,  if  we  take  care  to  keep  out  of  the  corners  and 
avoid  sharp  turning.  Now  the  English  method,  as  de- 
scribed above,  is  precisely  that  best  adapted  for  getting 
a  horse  to  cover  ground,  and  therefore,  for  the  purpose 
indicated  here,  it  is  like  getting  way  on  a  vessel  by 
means  of  the  head-sail,  without  which  the  rudder  is  per- 
fectly useless  ;  after  a  while  we  can  haul  aft  our  sheets  till 
we  get  a  weather-helm  and  steer  any  course  we  please. 
The  English  plan  is,  therefore,  invaluable  for  getting 
way  on,  but  to  get  a  weather-helm  we  must  have  re- 
course to 

The  Continental  or  School  Systein. — As  the  objects 
this  proposes  to  attain  are  essentially  different  from  what 
the  majority  of  English  riders  aim  at,  so  are  also  the 
means  employed  for  the  purpose.  Whilst  the  latter  de- 
mand from  each  individual  horse  the  greatest  possible 
amount  of  speed  on  straight  lines  it  is  capable  of  afford- 
ing— treating  the  question  of  wear  and  tear  of  the  ani- 
mal's fore  legs  as  a  matter  of  secondary  importance — 
the  proper  objects  of  the  school  are :   first,  to  fix  on 


How  to  Render  Horses  Obedient.  211 

standards  of  speed  and  work  attainable  by  the  averages 
of  various  classes  of  horses  ;  secondly,  to  enable  them  to 
move  with  ease  to  themselves,  and  with  the  aid  of  the 
rider's  one  hand  alone,  on  cui-\'ed  lines  in  various  paces 
— that  is  to  say,  to  make  them  handy ;  and,  thirdly,  to 
do  all  this  in  perfect  obedience,  and  in  such  a  manner 
that  the  inevitable  wear  and  tear  should  be  equally 
divided  over  all  four  legs,  by  which  means  the  total 
period  of  service  may  be  considerably  prolonged.  In  a 
word,  the  English  system  is  based  on  the  competition  of 
individual  horses  on  the  race-course  and  in  the  hunting- 
field,  and  therefore  employs  the  fore  legs  exclusively  as 
bearers,  and  the  hind  ones  equally  so  as  propellers,  speed 
alone  being  the  object ;  whereas  the  school  system,  con- 
templating the  simultaneous  action  of  bodies  of  horses 
in  varied  forms,  excluding  altogether  the  idea  of  com- 
petition, and  not  aiming  at  the  highest  degree  of  speed, 
transfers  a  portion  of  the  weight  to  be  carried  from  the 
fore  to  the  hind  legs,  establishing  thereby  a  more  equa- 
ble balance  of  labor.  It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  add 
that  the  school  is  the  nursery  for  military  riding,  which 
the  hunting-field  does  not  and  cannot  profess  to  be. 

Tlie  majority  of  English  riders  hold  the  school  in  the 
greatest  contempt,  simply  because  they  are  altogether 
preoccupied  with  their  own  ideas  of  the  turf  and  the 
field,  to  which  this  is  quite  inapplicable  ;  and  merely 
mechanical  school-riders  return  the  compliment  with 
equal  unfairness  when  they  point  to  our  broken  knees, 
stiti'  fore  legs,  frequently  exceptionally  restive  horses, 
etc.  It  would  be  much  more  rational  for  both  parties 
to  endeavor  to  learn  something  useful  from  each  other, 
for  both  systems  contain  much  that  is  good  and  useful 
for  all. 

It  is  seldom  possible  for  the  school-rider  to  adopt  the 
preliminary  education  of  walking  the  young  horse  out 
on  the  roads,  etc.,  as  is  the  excellent  practice  of  the  Eng- 


ZI2        Resflveness :  its  Prevention  and  Cure* 

lish  trainer,  and  therefore  the  remount  is  taken  at  once 
into  the  riding-school  to  be  lounged.  The  lounging 
itself,  too,  is  carried  out  in  a  different  manner,  for  it  re- 
quires one  or  two  assistants  at  first.  One  of  these  carries 
the  whip  ;  the  other,  usually  the  groom,  is  necessary  in 
the  first  stages  for  the  purpose  of  leading  the  young 
horse  round  the  circle  until  it  knows  what  is  required 
of  it.  The  assistant  with  the  whip  must  understand  his 
business  perfectly — his  services  are  most  important  and 
indispensable  throughout.  As  a  matter  of  course,  during 
the  first  lessons,  a  very  wide  circle  is  used,  and  the  snaf- 
fle-reins are  attached  loosely  to  the  rings  of  the  surcin- 
gle, the  inner  07ie  being  slightly  shorter  than  the  other, 
as  it  would  otherwise  hang  slack  when  the  horse  bends 
in  the  neck  and  body  in  circling.  The  English  trainer 
usually  adopts  the  contrary  practice  of  shortening  the 
outer  rein  in  order  to  prevent  the  horse  running  in  to- 
ward the  centre  ;  but  this  object  is  much  better  attained 
through  the  agency  of  the  assistant  with  the  whip,  be- 
cause the  great  object,  especially  in  the  subsequent  les- 
sons, is  to  meet  and  regulate  the  length  of  the  stride  of 
the  inner  hind  leg  by  the  inner  rein,  which,  however, 
always  must  have  a  sufficient  counter-pull  in  the  outer 
rein — the  isolated  action  of  any  one  rein  resulting  merely 
in  a  change  of  position  of  the  head,  instead  of  acting  on 
the  whole  side  of  the  horse. 

When  the  horse  has  become  accustomed  to  circling 
on  the  lounge  in  this  manner  with  sufficient  freedom,  the 
trainer  proceeds  gradually  toward  his  ulterior  object  of 
bringing  out  a  perfectly  clean — that  is,  equable  and  regu- 
larly-cadenced — trot,  by  accustoming  the  animal  to  trans- 
fer a  portion  of  its  own  weight  from  its  fore  to  its  hind 
legs,  without  thereby  checking  its  forward  impulse  more 
than  is  exactly  necessary.  This  is  easily  done  by  gradu- 
ally shortening  the  snafl^le-reins  ;  and  if  the  horse  carries 
his  head  too  low,  by  adding  bearing-reins,  for  which 


How  to  Render  Horses  Obedient,  213 

purpose  the  dumb-jockey  is  useful.  And  now  the  assist- 
ant with  the  whip  has  the  greater  part  of  the  work  to 
do,  it  being  his  business,  by  demonstrations  with  that 
instrument  toward  the  horse's  chest  underneath  (not  to- 
ward the  hind  legs),  to  keep  the  animal  well  up  to  its 
work,  while  the  trainer  himself  moderates  the  pace  by 
gently  shaking  the  cord  or  line,  never  suffering  the  horse 
to  lean  heavily  on  his  hand,  and  never  himself  taking  a 
dead  pull. 

These  two  functionaries  must  act  perfectly  in  unison, 
and  both  of  them  understand  perfectly  their  work,  which 
requires  judgment,  patience  and  dexterity.  Wonderful 
results  may  be  obtained  by  a  well-judged  use  of  the 
lounge,  but  we  are  bound  to  say  that,  in  unskillful 
hands,  an  enormous  amount  of  mischief  may  be  also 
perpetrated  in  the  way  of  producing  or  confirming  rest- 
iveness,  or  even  with  the  more  tangible  evidences  of 
curbs,  spavins  and  other  lamenesses.  It  is  impossible 
to  give  any  precise  rule  as  to  the  amount  by  which  the 
reins  may  be  shortened  or  the  horse's  head  brought  up. 
All  that  can  be  said  is  this :  if  the  horse  hurries  its  trot, 
constantly  increasing  the  pace,  and  finally  breaking  into 
a  canter,  you  may  be  sure  that  the  head  is  too  low,  and 
the  weight  still  too  much  forward,  consequently  you 
must  bear  it  up  gradually  till  this  ceases.  On  the  other 
hand,  if  you  find  the  horse  trotting  unequally  and  irreg- 
ularly, in  something  like  a  mixture  of  trot  and  canter  in 
an  amble,  or  if  it  seems  only  capable  of  getting  on  in  a 
short,  cramped  canter,  then  you  may  be  equally  sure 
that  your  reins  are  too  short,  and  you  must  immediately 
ease  them  all  to  the  state  in  which  the}- were  at  the  very 
first  lesson,  and  then  try  back  till  you  bring  out  a  per- 
fectly clean  rhythmic  trot ;  whatever  position  the  horse's 
head  and  neck  may  then  have,  is  the  true  one,  all  the 
pedants  in  the  world  notwithstanding.  Indeed,  it  is  a 
good  plan  to  finish  each  lesson  and  commence  the  next 


214        Restiveness :  its  Prevention  and  Cure, 

one  with  somewhat  slack  reins.  The  being  too  lazy  to 
take  the  trouble  of  altering  the  gear  often  causes  double 
work,  and  a  horse  will  bear  more  pressure,  on  the  whole, 
with  good  temper,  if  you  reward  it  by  occasional  spells 
of  relaxation. 

It  will  not  be  out  of  place  here  to  remark,  that  if  your 
horse  be  weak  in  the  hind  quarters  or  legs — that  you 
cannot  go  so  far  with  the  bearing  up,  in  fact — you  must 
incline  more  to  the  English  system  ;  whereas  if  it  has 
suffered  only  in  its  fore  legs,  you  may  carry  the  process 
to  the  utmost  extent  that  is  compatible  with  clean  trot- 
ting ;  and  this  is  precisely  the  reason  why  many  an 
English  horse,  with  ruined  fore  legs,  may  be  rendered 
capable  of  doing  good  and  safe  service  as  an  officer's 
charger  for  many  a  year,  if  handled  judiciously,  after 
this  fashion. 

We  now  come  to  the  period  when  the  young  horse  has 
been  saddled  and  backed.  The  animal  will,  during  the 
process  of  lounging,  have  been  accustomed  to  the  saddle 
being  placed  on  the  centre  of  its  back  and  the  girths 
round  its  proper  waist,  instead  of  round  its  chest. 
During  the  first  lesson  under  the  rider,  the  horse  will 
continue  on  the  lounge,  the  great  object  being  to  make 
the  transition  as  gradual  as  possible,  for  which  reason 
the  assistant  with  the  whip  will  continue  his  services, 
whilst  tlie  trainer  also  continues  to  direct  the  animal's 
movement  with  the  line.  The  rider,  therefore,  will  at 
first  remain  nearly  passive,  avoiding,  on  the  one  hand, 
interfering  too  much  with  the  reins,  and,  on  the  other, 
pressing  too  closely  his  legs  against  the  horse's  body  ;  in 
fact,  his  seat  will  be  very  much  like  that  of  the  English 
trainer  in  the  first  instance,  but  by  degrees  he  will  take 
the  direction  of  the  horse's  movements  over  from  the 
trainer  into  his  own  hands^  and  with  his  legs  do  the 
duty  hitherto  performed  by  the  assistant  with  the  whip. 
For  this  reason   he  will  then  change  his  seat,  bringing 


How  to  Refidcr  Hoi'ses  Obedient.  215 

his  legs  well  back  so  as  to  get  a  perpendicular  tread  on 
the  stirrup,  and  holding  them  close  to  the  horse's  ribs 
without  screwing.  A  slight  increase  of  pressure  of  both 
legs  here  in  this  position  always  has  the  eflect  of  making 
the  horse  bring  its  hind  legs  forward  under  its  body, 
just  as  the  whip  does ;  and  if,  at  the  same  time,  the 
horse's  head  and  neck  are  brought  up  and  back,  the  rel- 
ative proportions  of  weight  to  be  carried  by  the  hind  and 
fore  legs  can  be  easily  determined  by  the  rider. 

Let  us  now  suppose  the  remount  so  far  advanced  as  to 
enable  us  to  dispense  altogether  with  the  lounge  and 
the  whip,  and  hand  it  over  to  the  rider  alone  ;  in  fact,  to 
be  in  the  stage  of  its  education  corresponding  to  that  in 
which  the  English  trainer  takes  it  out  for  long  rides  on 
straight  lines.  The  school  rough-rider,  on  the  contrary, 
does  his  work  in  an  enclosed  rectangular  space,*  which 
makes  all  the  difference  in  the  world,  because  during 
each  circuit  of  the  manege  four  corners  have  to  be  got 
through — that  is  to  say,  as  many  changes  of  direction 
made.  Let  us  take  the  rider,  in  the  first  instance,  as 
being  on  one  of  the  long  sides  of  the  rectangle — on 
which  Ijand  is  immaterial  :  his  English  confrere  holds 
his  hands  close  together  steadily  down  on  the  horse's 
withers,  just  letting  the  animal  come  up  to  meet  the 
mouthpiece  ;  the  school-rider,  on  the  contrary,  raises  his 
hands  more  or  less  according  to  the  natural  position  of 
the  horse's  head  and  neck,  his  object  being,  as  we  have 
seen,  to  bring  their  weight  back  toward  the  hind  legs, 
which  latter  the  pressure  of  his  own  legs  tends  to  bring 
forward.  Moreover,  instead  of  holding  his  hands 
merely  passive,  he  takes  a  rein  in  each  hand,  and  with 
a  gradual  but  decisive  turn  of  the  wrist,  meets  each 
stride  of  the  hind  leg  with  a  gentle  pull  on  the  rein  at 
the  corresponding  side,  working  upward  and  backward. 

*  The  circus,  properly  so  called,  is  only  used  for  purposes  of  exhi- 
bition. 


Zi6        Resthcncss .   its  Prcz>c?itio7i  and  Cure. 

Thus,  whilst  the  pressure  of  the  man's  legs  brings  the 
hind  leg  of  the  remount  forward,  the  pressure  of  his 
wrist,  exercised  through  the  rein,  determines  exactly  to 
what  extent  this  shall  take  place,  and,  in  fact,  prescribes 
the  point  at  which  the  foot  shall  be  placed  on  the 
ground.  This  is  what  is  called  floating  or  oscillating 
between  the  rider's  hand  and  leg ;  it  is  what  gives  per- 
fect control  over  the  horse's  movements,  and  explains 
why  the  terms  "  mere  rein"  or  "  mere  stirrup"  riding 
are  used  in  a  satirical  sense.  A  little  attention  will  soon 
teach  even  a  beginner  which  hind  foot  is  being  brought 
forward,  and  consequently  with  which  rein  he  will  have 
to  regulate  its  action  ;  for  it  will  never  answer  the  pur- 
pose to  pull  across,  as  that  would  only  derange  the 
position  of  the  neck  and  head  ;  and  this  "  feeling  in  the 
seat,"  as  it  is  called,  is  a  sense  that  riders  must  cultivate, 
as  it  will  enable  them  to  find  out  ivimediaiely  wdiat 
their  horse  is  about,  and  whether  he  be  meditating  mis- 
chief, which,  if  his  leg  be  in  the  right  place,  he  can  nip 
in  the  bud  ;  whereas,  if  it  be  somewhere  away  toward 
the  horse's  shoulder,  he  is  sure  to  come  too  late.* 

The  corners  and  changes  of  direction  must  not  be 
overlooked.  At  first  these  must  be  got  through  in  a 
wide  sweep,  for  which  the  lounging  was  sufficient  pre- 
paration. By  degrees,  however,  this  sweep  is  narrowed 
and  the  change  of  direction  made  more  abrupt ;  we 
must  therefore  see  how  this  is  to  be  effected  and  what 
results  it  produces. 

When  a  horse  moves  on  a  segment  of  a  circle,  we 
must  consider  the  two  inner  legs  as  moving  on  an 
interior  somewhat  narrower,  and  the  two  outer  ones 
on  an  exterior  som.ewhat  wider  curve.  The  difference 
between  the  two,  although  not  very  great,  is  neverthe- 
less sufficiently  so  to  compel  the  animal  to  shorten  the 

*  For  the  same  reason  it  will  not  do  to  rise  in  the  stirrups,  English 
fashion,  for  we  should  miss  each  alternate  tread. 


How  to  Render  Horses  Obedient,  217 

strides  of  the  inner  legs  perceptibly,  and  the  shorter 
the  radius  of  the  circle  the  more  perceptible  is  this 
difference.  When  the  rider  is  therefore  about  passing 
through  a  corner,  he  will  come  to  the  young  horse's  aid 
by  urging  forward  the  inner  leg  somewhat  less  than  the 
outer  one  ;  at  the  same  time  he  must  bend  the  horse's 
neck  and  head  in  the  proposed  direction,  and  therefore 
he  holds  his  inner  hand  somewhat  lower  than  the  outer 
one,  makes  his  own  leg  at  the  same  side  more  perpen- 
dicular, the  outer  one  being  brought  well  back  to  sus- 
tain the  action  on  that  side.  Now  the  result  of  all  this 
is,  that  the  inner  hind  leg  is  made  to  bear  a  somewhat 
increased  proportion  of  the  whole  weight  during  the 
passage  of  the  corners  as  compared  with  the  straight 
line  ;  and,  thus  by  changing  from  one  hand  to  the  other, 
the  young  horse  learns  to  bend  his  hocks  in  succession, 
and  in  an  easy  and  gradual  manner.  After  passing 
through  the  corner  and  getting  on  again  to  a  straight 
line,  the  action  of  the  rider's  legs  is  again  equalized, 
but  his  hands  always  remain  in  the  position  described, 
as  the  horse's  head  must  be  kept  slightly  away  from 
the  wall  or  barrier. 

This  process  is  graduated  thus :  first,  round  off  the 
angles  in  a  wide  sweep,  then  gradually  narrower  ;  sec- 
ondly, halve  and  then  quarter  the  manege,  by  which 
means  the  angles  will  come  more  frequently  into  play; 
finally,  convert  your  smallest  rectangle  into  a  circle  and 
wind  up  by  diminishing  its  diameter,  changing,  of 
course,  from  one  hand  to  the  other,  in  order  to  work 
both  hind  legs  equally. 

There  are  two  distinct  means  employed  here  :  first, 
the  getting  the  horse's  head  and  neck  up  and  back — to 
use  a  nautical  expression  again,  more  inboard  ;  second- 
ly, to  accustom  the  horse  to  bend  its  hocks  and  haunches 
so  as  to  take  over  a  portion  of  the  v>'eight.  Unless 
gi-eatly  pressed  for  time,  it  is  better  not  to  commence 
19 


21 S        Kestiveness :  its  Prevention  and  Cure. 

both  processes  at  once,  and  much  preferable  to  devote 
attention,  in  the  first  instance,  to  the  position  of  tlie 
horse's  head  and  neck  ;  and  when  some  progress  has 
been  made  with  these,  then  go  on  to  the  hind  legs. 
Therefore  the  seat  and  the  position  of  the  rider's  legs 
will  be  at  first  more  analogous  to  the  English  fiishion, 
reverting,  when  the  time  comes,  to  the  school  position 
as  a  matter  of  necessity.  A  certain  portion  of  the  work 
of  getting  the  horse's  head  and  neck  into  position  may 
be  very  advantageously  done  while  the  animal  stands 
still,  but  no  real  progress  can  be  made  in  getting  it  to 
carry  its  burden  in  the  desired  manner  unless  these 
bending  lessons,  as  they  are  called,  be  immediately  fol- 
lowed up  by  brisk  trotting  ones ;  and,  for  the  same 
reason,  it  is  of  great  importance,  when  practicable,  to 
take  the  horse  out  of  the  school  occasionally  and  let  it 
have  a  good  straight-ahead  go  after  the  English  fashion. 
The  dumb-jockey  being  much  u.«f"d  in  this  country,  it 
becomes  necessary  to  say  a  wore'  the  subject.  This 
instrument  represents  a  pair  of  ban  without  legs,  and 
therefore  can  at  best  only  perform  just  one-half  of  the 
work  we  have  now  under  consideration,  and  even  this 
imperfectly.  We  must  therefore  call  the  whip  to  our 
aid  in  order  to  supply  the  want  of  the  legs,  which  the 
whip  will  do,  but  then  we  can  never  attain  the  alter- 
nately graduated  pull  on  each  rein  successively  nor 
vary  the  pressure  so  readily.  Moreover,  the  problem 
to  be  solved  being  the  distribution  of  weight,  with  the 
dumb-jockey  we  can  only  adjust  that  of  the  animal 
itself,  the  whole  of  whose  equilibrium  being  overthrown 
when  the  rider  once  gets  on  its  back,  we  are  then  com- 
pelled to  begin  the  entire  process  de  novo.  The  judg- 
ment, tact  and  power  of  appreciation  of  a  really  good 
rider  will  produce  far  better  results,  and,  on  the  whole, 
in  a  shorter  time  than  the  dumb-jockey  ever  can  do, 
except  perhaps  as  a  triumph  of  art  in  the  circus,  or  for 


Hotv  to  Render  Horses  Obedient.  219 

the  purpose  of  combating-  some  special  form  of  vice ; 
nevertheless  it  is  evident,  from  what  has  been  just  said, 
that  this  instrument  maybe  used  with  advantage  by  those 
who  wish  to  train  on  the  English  system.  What  we  have 
here  given  is  merely  a  sketch  of  so  much  of  the  school 
system  as  suffices  to  bring  horses  into  obedience — in 
fact,  the  A  B  C  of  the  method — as  it  would  lead  us  alto- 
gether beyond  the  limits  we  have  proposed  to  ourselves 
to  go  farther  than  this  into  the  detail  of  manege-riding, 
even  if  we  felt  ourselves  competent  to  do  so,  which  is 
far  from  being  the  case.  Our  object  was  to  show  by 
what  means,  within  almost  every  rider's  reach,  perfect 
control  may  be  obtained  over  the  horse's  head,  neck 
and  hind  legs,  and  this  because  it  is  by  the  aid  of  these 
members  of  its  bodv,  especially  the  last-named  ones, 
that  the  vicious  or  insubordinate  horse  is  enabled  to 
defy  its  rider. 

Up  to  the  point  at  which  we  have  now  arrived  it  will 
have  been  most  advisable  to  use  a  snaffle,  either  alone 
or  in  combination  with  Seeger's  running-rein,  which 
enables  us,  while  we  lift  the  horse's  neck  and  head  by 
the  upward  and  backward  pull  on  the  snaffle-reins,  to 
limit  exactly  the  degree  to  which  this  elevation  takes 
place.  When  the  neck,  and  with  it  the  head,  have  been 
got  into  the  desired  position — which  is.  we  repeat, 
always  that  in  which  the  horse  trots  perfectly  "clean" 
and  in  "obedience" — the  next  step  is  to  get  the  head 
into  its  proper  position  witli  regard  to  the  neck,  and 
this  is  done  by  means  of  the  curbed  bit. 

What  sort  of  bit  should  be  selected,  and  how  it  ought 
to  be  put  into  the  horse's  mouth,  has  been  already  fully 
explained,  and  all  that  will  be  further  necessary  to  ac- 
custom the  horse  gradually  to  this  in  precisely  the  way 
pointed  out  already  for  getting  it  to  accept  other  limita- 
tions of  its  freedom.  If  all  this  be  done  carefullv,  skil- 
fully, above  all,  patiently  but  resolutely,  the  result  w^ill 


220        Restiveness :  its  Preveiitlon  arid  Cttre. 

be  a  horse  moving  in  complete  obedience  to  the  will 
of  the  rider,  at  all  degrees  of  speed,  with  perfect  ease 
to  itself,  and  without  apparent  effort  on  the  rider's  part ; 
for  the  animal  will  have  learned  to  modify  the  propel- 
ling and  bearing  action  of  its  hind  legs  in  accordance 
with  the  pressure  exercised  by  the  rider's  legs,  while 
the  lever  action  of  the  head  on  the  neck  produced  by  a 
properly-fitting  and  carefully  adjusted  bit  being  trans- 
mitted directly  to  the  anterior  extremity  of  the  spinal 
column,  and  indirectly  through  the  medium  of  the  reins 
toward  the  centre  of  motion^  will  regulate  the  amount 
of  action  most  eftcctually.  The  two  figures  of  Plate  V. 
illustrate  in  different  senses  what  we  have  here  endeav- 
ored to  convey  by  words.  The  upper  one  shows  a  horse 
whose  hind  legs  are  subject  to  no  efficient  or  direct  con- 
trol, the  action  both  of  the  bit  and  of  the  rider's  legs 
being  concentrated  altogether  on  the  forehand  through 
the  diagonal  tread  on  the  stirrup  and  the  pull  on  the 
reins  directed  upward  toward  the  rider's  neck.  The 
lower  figure,  on  the  contrary,  shows  a  horse  whose 
body  moves  under  tlie  perfect  control  of  the  rider ;  the 
tread  on  the  stirrup  is  vertical,  the  pull  on  the  reins  not 
far  from  horizontal  and  directed  toward  the  rider's  seat 
and  the  common  centres  of  gravity  and  motion.  Both 
figures  sit  nearly  exactly  on  the  same  part  of  their  re- 
spective horses.  The  great  difierence  betv^^een  the  seats 
lies  in  the  position  of  the  leg  from  the  hip,  and  espe- 
cially from  the  knee  downward  ;  while  the  great  difier- 
ence in  the  carriage  of  tlie  two  horses  lies  in  the  respect- 
ive positions  of  their  necks.  Some  of  the  other  plates 
illustrate  the  same  thing  in  different  ways. 


CHAPTER    II. 

GE*A  €RAL    RULES    FOR    THE    TREATMENT    OF   REST- 
IVENESS. 


Th  ri,  rlrst  and  most  important  rule  to  be  observed  is, 
to  .xsce-r'tcdn  the  cause  of  the  i'estive??ess  and  the 
circufnsra^ces  zander  which  it  ivas  Jirst  displayed  and 
is  usually  repeated.  This  alone  will  frequently  suffice 
to  suggest  Xv^  p/opcr  remedy,  as  it  will  also  show  us 
how  vicious  habits  may  be  best  prevented,  especially 
with  young  annuals. 

It  is  worse  than  useless  to  take  your  horse  to  the 
street-corner,  the  cioss-roads,  the  bridge,  the  railway- 
crossing  or  the  house,  etc.,  w^iere  it  is  in  the  habit  of 
otTering  opposition  to  your  will,  as  this  only  leads  evenl- 
uall}^  to  a  trial  of  strength,  in  which  the  horse  is  always 
superior.  You  must  choose  a  more  favorable  ground 
— namely,  intelligence — in  which  man  ought  to  be  su- 
perior to  the  brute  creation,  which,  however,  by  no 
means  precludes  the  necessity  of  administering  judicious 
punishment  when  necessary,  and  altogether  excludes 
the  idea  of  tamely  truckling  to  the  animal's  insubordi- 
nation. 

The  principal  causes  of  restiveness  are  to  be  sought, 
either  in  some  physical  defect  of  conformation,  in  the 
condition  of  the  animal,  in  its  disj^osition  or  in  its  tem- 
19 «  221 


222        Restivencss :  Its  Prevention  and  Cure* 

per,  and  sometimes  in  a  combination  of  two  or  more  of 
these. 

With  young  animals  especially,  defects  of  conforma- 
tion— as  weak  backs,  hind  quarters,  or  something  abnor- 
mal about  the  head  and  neck — lead  them  into  insubor- 
dination in  self-defence.  Want  of  ability  to  do  the 
work  demanded  of  them,  in  consequence  of  defective 
condition,  will  produce  the  same  effect  both  in  young 
and  old  horses ;  starvation  is,  therefore,  in  most  in- 
stances, a  posfitively  injurious  instead  of  a  curative  pro- 
cess. No  doubt  a  horse's  temper  may  be  subdued  to  a 
certain  extent  by  this  means,  but  then  it  becomes  unfit 
to  do  work,  so  that  nothing  is  gained  in  the  end.  As 
regards  disposition,  some  horses  refuse  their  work  from 
sheer  sluggishness  ;  others,  again,  from  timidity  or  irri- 
tability. This  latter  is  very  frequently  the  case  with 
mares,  especially  at  certain  seasons  of  the  year,  and 
may  be  very  often  remedied  by  putting  them  to  stud  for 
one  or  two  years.  It  is  obvious  that  one  method  of 
treatment  is  not  applicable  to  these  very  different  cases. 
Finally,  a  merely  passionate  temper  requires  different 
management  from  a  dogged  one  ;  while  sheer  vice  is 
the  most  difficult  of  all  to  deal  with,  and  usually  a  con- 
sequence of  injudicious  treatment.  When  all  this  has 
been  well  considered  and  the  cause  or  causes  of  restive- 
ncss ascertained,  one  can  begin  to  work  with  some 
chance  of  success,  otherwise  not. 

The  second  general  rule  is  very  easily  deducible  from 
the  first — it  is  this  :  avoid  giving  the  horse  an  opportu- 
nity of  resisting  your  will  successfully  so  long  as  it  pos- 
sesses the  means  of  doing  so — that  is  to  say,  until  you 
have  acquired,  by  the  means  already  described,  com- 
plete control  over  its  movements.  Therefore  have  your 
horse  led  into  a  riding-school  or  some  enclosed  space 
where  it  has  never  shown  restiveness,  and  do  your  work 
there,  and  after  each  lesson  dismount  again,  loosening 


General  Rules.  223 

girths,  etc.,  also  caressing  the  animal,  if  obedient,  and 
avoiding  to  push  it  prematurely  to  the  verge  of  resist- 
ance, trusting  rather  to  gradual  progress  than  to  violent 
measures.  All  horses  are  very  susceptible  to,  and  grate- 
ful for,  kindness. 

As  an  enclosed  space  is  not  always  available,  it  will 
be  well  to  point  out  what  can  be  done  without  it,  in  case 
of  necessity.  Some  horses  refuse  to  leave  their  stable, 
either  from  natural  sluggishness  or  indisposition  to  leave 
their  companions.  A  man  on  foot  armed  with  a  whip 
will  often  succeed  in  driving  them  away,  but  in  this  case 
it  is  his  will  and  not  yours  that  has  prevailed,  and  there- 
fore little  real  progress  is  made.  It  is  much  more  ad- 
visable in  such  cases  to  lead  the  animal  away  to  some 
distance,  taking  with  you  a  nosebag  with  some  oats,  of 
which  you  give  a  handful  now  and  then.  You  may 
after  a  time  mount  your  horse,  and  when  on  its  back 
give  it  a  handful  of  oats  from  the  saddle  before  attempt- 
ing to  go  farther,  getting  its  head,  of  course,  in  the 
proper  direction.  If  you  find  this  not  to  succeed  at  first, 
dismount  again  rather  than  risk  a  conflict,  lead  the  ani- 
mal out  a  couple  of  miles,  and  give  it  the  whole  contents 
of  the  nosebag  at  some  convenient  place,  taking  each 
day  a  diflerent  road,  and  never  feeding  twice  in  the 
same  place.  You  may  always  ride  home,  and  this  will 
be  your  opportunity  for  acquiring  control  over  its  neck, 
head  and  hind  legs  :  the  more  it  hurries  back  to  its  sta- 
ble the  better  will  you  be  enabled  to  do  this  work.* 

Or  if  it  be  a  case  of  attachment  to  the  stable  compan- 
ions, then  put  a  rider  on  one  of  these,  whose  business  it 
will  be  to  keep  sometimes  alongside  of  your  own  horse, 
at  others  ahead,  or  again  in  the  rear,  making  circuits, 
riding  away  and  returning — the  nosebag  with  oats  may 

*  It  will  be  well  to  dismount  at  some  little  distance  from  the  stable 
and  lead  the  horse  home,  never  repeating  this  operation  in  exactly  the 
same  place. 


224        JR.estivc7icss :  its  Prcve7itio7i  and  Cure, 

be  superadded  to  this  method  of  treatment ;  and  thus 
the  animal  may  be  got  and  kept  under  wa}'  constantly, 
which  gives  the  rider  the  desired  opportunity  of  work- 
ing it — for  this  is  the  main  object  to  keep  in  view.  Two 
or  three  servants  riding  together,  and  thinking  only  of 
their  own  amusement,  will  teach  horses  to  cling  to  one 
another  ;  or  one  riding  the  same  dull  constant  round  will 
stupefy  a  horse  into  restiveness,  of  which  it  may  be  cured 
by  the  above  method. 

But  if  you  have  an  enclosed  space  of  some  kind  to 
work  in,  25  to  30  yards  long,  and  15  to  20  wide,  it  will 
be  much  better  to  use  it  in  the  first  instance  ;  and  then, 
when  you  feel  it  to  be  safe,  ride  out  occasionally  till  the 
cure  is  complete.  Of  course  your  main  object  will  be 
to  get  the  horse  to  go  so772ehoiv  in  the  first  instance,  and 
then  by  degrees  in  obedience,  the  means  of  effecting 
which  have  been  already  pointed  out. 

Should  the  restiveness  be  traceable  to  physical  defects 
— to  weakness  of  the  back,  loins,  hind  legs,  or  to  some 
peculiarity  of  conformation  of  the  head  and  neck,  as  is 
especially  the  case  with  horses  that  seek  to  defend  them- 
selves by  rearing  or  "bucking" — you  must  adjust  your 
seat  very  carefully,  and  sometimes  even  change  your  sad- 
dle with  that  view.  It  is  a  great  mistake  in  such  cases, 
under  the  pretext  of  getting  what  is  called  a  good,  firm 
seat,  to  rest  your  whole  weight  on  the  horse's  loins,  by 
placing  yourself  at  one  end  of  a  long  saddle,  and  tuck- 
ing up  your  legs  with  short  stirrups  at  the  other  end. 
On  the  contrary,  one  must  get  well  down  into  the  centre 
of  the  saddle,  with  somewhat  of  a  fork  seat ;  and  the 
bringing  your  weight  forward  must  be  accomplished, 
not  by  bending  in  that  direction  from  your  hips,  which 
will  lose  you  all  control  over  the  horse's  neck  and  head, 
but  by  bringing  the  seat  into  the  proper  place. 

With  irritable,  impatient  tempers  it  is  important  to  sit 
as  steadily  as  possible — a  close  seat  is  what  suits  them 


General  Rules.  225 

best;  they  also  require  very  careful  and  accurate  bitting; 
anything  painful  exasperates  such  horses. 

So  too,  with  horses  that  want  to  go  ;  indulge  them 
and  moderate  their  fire  gvadualh' ;  whilst  with  sluggish 
ones  encouragement  will  suit  best ;  and  as  regards  food, 
let  it  always  be  in  proportion  to  the  work,  and  this  latter 
to  the  condition. 

Of  course  it  is  impossible  to  lay  down  a  ready  cut-and- 
dry  rule  applicable  to  the  treatment  of  each  individual 
horse  ;  but  it  will  be  almost  always  advisable  to  have 
recourse  to  the  lounge  in  the  first  instance — if  for  no 
other  reason,  because  it  affords  the  best  opportunity  of 
seeing  and  studying  the  horse's  action,  and  ascertaining 
exactly  the  means  by  which  it  resists  ;  for  instance,  as 
is  frequently  the  case,  by  slinking  back  from  the  bridle, 
and  gathering  up  its  kgs  under  its  body  and  putting 
up  its  back  at  the  same  time.  In  such  cases  it  will  be 
best  to  continue  the  loungiffig  at  first  on  the  English 
principle,  and  subsequently  after  the  school  method  de- 
scribed above.  If  it  seems  advisable  to  get  the  horse's 
head  and  neck  up,  the  dumb-jockey  will  be  very  useful ; 
if.  on  the  contrary,  these  require  to  be  brought  down,  it 
will  be  useless  ;  and  with  horses  inclined  to  rearing  it 
should  never  be  used,  on  account  of  the  danger  of  their 
throwing  themselves  down. 

When  one  finds  the  horse  inclined  to  trot  out  well  and 
freely  on  the  lounge,  it  will  be  time  to  get  a  rider  on  its 
back,  and  then  to  alternate  the  lounging  and  riding  les- 
sons as  may  seem  advisable  until  the  former  become 
unnecessary.  With  i-estive  horses  it  is,  however,  better 
not  to  attempt  using  the  lounge  after  the  rider  is  on  the 
animal's  back,  but  merely  to  detach  the  cord,  leaving  the 
cavesson  on  their  heads,  and  giving  the  rider  a  pair  of 
short  reins,  attached  to  this,  into  his  hands,  in  addition 
to  the  snaffle-reins.  Except  in  very  skillful  and  practiced 
hands,  and  when  both  trainer  and  rider  are  accustomed 

P 


226        Restiveness :  its  Preventlo7i  and  Cure. 

to  act  in  unison,  there  is  always  great  danger  in  using 
the  lounge  in  this  way. 

The  general  plan  is,  therefore,  simply  this  :  first  loung- 
ing with  loose  reins  ;  secondly,  lounging  with  reins  grad- 
ually shortened  until  the  hind  legs  are  brought  under 
subjection,  the  horse  still  going  free  ;  thirdly,  riding  with 
loose  reins  ;  fourthly,  riding  with  shortened  ones,  varied 
with  bending  lessons — at  first,  whilst  standing  still,  then 
in  motion  ;  finally,  occasional  rides  out  and  giving  up 
the  school  by  degrees  till  it  may  be  finally  dispensed 
with  altogether.  Patience,  determined  cool  courage, 
intelligence,  kind  treatment  and  perseverance  are  the 
main  requisites  ;  there  is  no  royal  road — the  thing  can 
only  be  done  by  fair  work. 

There  are  some  horses  that  cannot  be  got  to  go  any- 
ho-w^  but  will  either  take  to  backing,  turning  sharp 
round,  generally  on  the  near  hind  leg,  rearing  up,  screw- 
ing themselves  up  against  a  wall,  climbing  up  houses, 
or  throwing  themselves  violently  on  the  ground.  Such 
animals  have  been  usually  brutally,  or  at  least  inju- 
diciously, treated,  and  in  most  cases  it  will  be  advisable 
to  hand  them  over  to  professionals,  who  should  in  com- 
mon fairness  be  told  the  whole  truth.  A  riding-school 
is,  however,  not  alw^ays  within  reach,  and  we  must, 
therefore,  see  what  can  be  done  with  horses  that  have 
acquired  vice  to  this  extent. 

The  first  step  to  be  taken  in  such  cases  is  to  restore 
confidence^  and  make  the  horse  feel  that  it  will  7iow  be 
subjected  to  kind  and  judicious  treatment.  This  must 
commence  in  the  stable,  and  the  foundation  is  best  laid 
by  the  man  who  feeds  and  cleans  the  animal  ;  and  here 
let  it  be  remarked,  that  an  example  of  violence  or  sever- 
ity given  by  the  owner  or  trainer  but  too  frequently  in- 
duces the  groom  to  follow  it  up,  and  should,  therefore, 
be  very  carefully  avoided.  If,  on  the  contrary,  the 
groom  succeeds  in  getting  the  horse  to  move  about  in 


General  Rules. 


227 


his  stall  and  turn  round,  a  good  foundation  is  thereby 
laid  for  the  further  treatment,  and  the  trainer  will  do 
well  to  follow  it  up  himself  precisely  in  the  same  man- 
ner, giving  the  animal  a  handful  of  oats,  a  piece  of 
bread,  or  a  lump  of  sugar,  which  most  horses  are  very 
fond  of,  whilst  others  prefer  common  salt.  When  you 
have  got  thus  far,  let  the  groom  lead  the  horse  out  into 
a  convenient  enclosed  space  :  at  first  it  will  be  best  to 
put  nothing  further  on  it  than  a  snaffle,  a  surcingle  and 
a  cavesson.  When  on  the  ground^  the  trainer  may  ap- 
proach it  quietly,  and,  giving  it  some  tit-bit,  make  much 
of  it,  and  then,  with  the  assistance  of  the  groom,  fix  the 
reins  of  the  snaffle  loosely  to  the  rings  of  the  surcingle, 
and  firmly  attach  the  line  to  the  centre  ring  of  the  ca- 
vesson, carefully  avoiding  all  compulsion.  When  this 
has  been  accomplished,  gather  up  the  lounge-line  in  a 
neat  and  regular  coil  in  your  left  hand,  so  that  if  the 
horse  makes  a  bolt  it  may  run  out  without  entangle- 
ment ;  and  seizing  the  line  about  three  or  four  feet 
from  the  cavesson-ring  with  your  right  hand,  place 
yourself  in  front  of  the  horse,  the  groom  standing  behind 
you. 

Before  proceeding  further  let  us  consider  for  a  mo- 
ment what  position  restive  horses  generally  assume  at 
the  moment  they  defend  themselves.  In  almost  all  cases 
it  will  be  found  that  they  gather  their  legs  under  their 
body,  sinking  their  croup,  which  may  be  seen  from  the 
position  of  the  tail,  getting  their  head  and  neck  well 
down,  and  futti7ig  their  back  up  like  an  angry  cat.  If 
the  reader  will  now  refer  to  Plate  I.,  and  compare  this 
with  fig.  4,  he  will  at  once  see  what  the  object  of  this 
position  is.  The  horse's  body  is  bent  round  the  centre 
of  motion  (fourteenth  vertebra)  like  a  bow  pulled  to  the 
archer's  ear,  ready  to  exert  the  whole  of  its  elastic 
power.  If  the  arrow  be  once  discharged,  your  control 
over  it  is  gone — so,  too,  if  the  horse  makes  the  plunge 


22S        Rcstlveiicss:  Us  Prevention  and  Cure, 

it  contemplates ;  therefore  your  first  task  will  be  to  un- 
string the  bow. 

The  first  stejD  to  this  is  to  get  the  horse  to  stretch 
itself.  Try  to  get  the  head  up  a  little  ;  if  you  meet  with 
opposition,  give  way,  as  if  you  did  not  perceive  it,  and 
try  again.  In  proportion  as  you  get  the  head  and  neck 
up  gently  the  back  will  flatten  down,  and  the  horse  will 
move  one  or  both  hind  legs  backward,  or  one  or  both 
fore  legs  forward.  The  horse  does  so  merely  to  save 
itself  from  falling  ;  you  will  do  wisely  by  giving  it  credit 
for  a  first  act  of  obedience  ;  therefore  pat  its  neck,  rub 
its  head,  speak  kindly  and  give  it  something.  If  it  has 
only  moved  one  hind  or  one  fore  leg,  by  bending  the 
head  and  neck  gradually  toward  the  other  one  this  too 
may  be  got  backward  or  forward  :  by  degrees  the  horse 
will  be  got  to  stretch  itself;  the  bow  is  unbent.  It  will 
altogether  depend  on  the  time  and  trouble  required  to 
get  thus  far  whether  the  first  lesson  should  be  further 
extended  or  not.  After  a  quarter  of  an  hour  or  twenty 
minutes  it  will  be  time  to  reward  the  horse  by  loosing 
all  the  straps,  leaving  it  to  the  groom  to  lead  it  about 
for  exercise  and  then  home.  Better  take  the  trouble  of 
giving  two  short  lessons  each  day,  after  which  all  par- 
ties remain  on  more  friendly  terms,  than  one  long  one 
ending  in  a  fight. 

Having  explained  at  length  the  method  of  proceed- 
ing, it  will  now  suffice  to  indicate  briefly  the  successive 
steps  to  be  taken.  When  the  horse  has  learned  to  stretch 
itself  willingly,  the  next  object  will  be  to  get  it  to  move 
in  obedience.  If  it  refuses  to  go  forward,  by  edging 
over  its  head  and  neck  in  the  proper  position,  it  will 
step  sidewise  to  save  itself  from  falling  ;  reward  it  again. 
In  a  day  or  two  it  will  follow  your  hand  forward  for 
the  sake  of  the  oats  you  show  it ;  then  by  degrees  it  will 
learn  to  circle  with- the  croup  round  the  forehand  ;  you 
will  "unfix"  the  feet  and  flatten  the  back  by  degrees, 


General  Rules,  229 

taking  care  always  to  stop  each  movement  and  limit  its 
extent  with  the  cavesson ;  real  obedience  is  thereby 
established,  and  the  horse  will  soon  follow  you  in  a 
wide  circle,  when,  the  assistant  taking  your  place  at  its 
head,  you  at  length  arrive  at  lounging,  and  proceed  as 
already  described. 

A  horse  that  backs — and  some  will  actually  trot  back- 
ward— must  be  somewhat  differently  handled,  but  still 
on  the  same  principle  :  there  is  even  less  difficulty  than 
in  the  cases  just  now  alluded  to,  because  the  animal  does 
move  somehow.  The  position  assumed  by  a  backing 
horse  is  that  described  above  ;  the  remedy  is,  therefore, 
to  alter  the  carriage  of  the  head  and  neck,  getting  these 
uf  as  high  as  possible  without  violence,  and  the  weight 
being  more  thrown  inward,  the  back  is  flattened  and 
the  hocks  bent  instead  of  being  stiflened  as  before.  This 
soon  brings  the  animal  to  stand  still,  which,  however, 
should  not  be  permitted  ;  on  the  contrary,  it  must  be 
made  to  go  backward  in  obedience  to  the  cavesson  one 
or  two  steps,  the  head  well  up  ;  which  done,  reward  it 
by  suffering  it  to  go  ahead  ;  and  repeat  this  backing  pro- 
cess until  it  goes  willingly  forward,  when  it  may  be 
handled  as  already  directed. 

In  applying  this  method  when  on  the  horse's  back, 
care  must  be  taken  to  use  each  hand  and  heel  (spur)  in 
unison,  "  stopping"  with  the  latter  the  backward  tread 
of  each  hind  leg  alternately  on  the  off  and  near  sides, 
and  not  suffering  the  horse  to  put  one  hind  foot  to  the 
ground  too  far  away  from  the  other,  for  one  hock  is  then 
sure  to  be  stiff'.  The  pull  on  the  rein  must  be,  of  course, 
upward  and  backward  at  the  side  corresponding  to  the 
hind  leg  you  want  to  act  on,  and  only  upward  at  the 
other  side.  If  the  rider  hurries  the  horse  back,  fails  to 
sit  perfectly  upright  in  the  saddle,  and  makes  a  muddle 
of  the  action  of  his  hands  and  heels,  there  will  always 
be  danger  of  the  horse  rearing  up  and  falling  back :  in 
20 


230        Restiveness  :  its  Prevention  and  Cure, 

fact,  this  special  form  of  restiveness  is  very  often  called 
forth  by  injudicious  management  of  a  backing  horse ; 
whilst,  on  the  other  hand,  making  a  rearer  rein  back 
i7i  obedience  is  one  of  the  best  remedies  we  have  for 
rearing. 

To  prevent  misapprehension,  it  is  necessary  to  ex- 
plain how  it  is  that  the  spur  will  stop  the  hind  leg  and 
limit  its  action,  which  is  simply  because  the  effect  of  the 
spur  or  heel  being  always  to  make  the  horse  advance 
the  hind  leg  at  the  same  side  when  the  animal  is  back- 
ing, this  becomes,  in  fact,  equivalent  to  stopping  it ; 
whereas,  when  it  is  going  forward,  the  contrary  effect  is 
produced,  and  the  stopping  work  done  by  the  rein,  as 
already  explained  in  the  preceding  chapter. 

It  has  been  shown  above  that,  with  the  cavesson,  it 
is  possible  to  lay  the  foundation  for  forward  action  by 
making  the  horse,  in  the  first  instance,  circle  with  his 
hind  quarters  round  the  forehand.  When  mounted, 
precisely  the  same  method  may  be  employed  with  great 
success.  The  rider  commences  by  lifting  the  horse's 
neck  and  head  with  both  reins  until  the  animal's  mouth 
is  somewhat  higher  than  his  own  knee,  keeping  the 
calves  of  his  own  legs  well  closed  on  its  ribs ;  then,  by 
a  gradual  shortening  of  one  rein,  say  the  right  one,  he 
gets  the  head  round  till  the  forehead  comes  to  be  paral- 
lel to  the  horse's  backbone,  and  places  his  right  hand 
firmly  on  the  saddle  behind  his  own  right  knee,  and  so 
gets  a  dowmuard  pull  on  this  rein,  while  with  the  left 
one  he  keeps  the  horse's  head  and  neck  in  the  proper 
position.  Frequently  a  mere  increase  of  pressure  of 
the  right  calf  will  now  suffice  to  unfix  the  horse's  legs 
and  make  it  circle  with  the  croup  round  the  fore  legs, 
which  remain  on  the  spot,  and  finally  induce  it  to  go 
ahead.  Of  course  the  outer,  here  the  left,  leg  of  the 
rider  must  be  kept  well  closed  up,  so  as  to  determine 
the  velocity  at  which    this    circling  is    done    and    the 


General  Rules,  23 1 

extent  to  which  it  should  be  carried,  as  also  to  be  in 
perfect  readiness  to  act  in  unison  with  the  other  leg, 
and  with  both  reins,  to  determine  the  horse  to  move 
straight  ahead  when  it  evinces  the  disposition  to  do  so. 
But  still  more  frequently,  perhaps,  the  pressure  of  the 
calf  will  not  suffice,  and  then  one  must  use  the  spur 
freely,  and  this  will  generally  succeed.  Dead  pulling 
on  the  reins  will  not  do  ;  the  rider  must  increase  and 
diminish  the  pressure  alternately,  and  always  in  unison 
with  the  action  of  his  own  heels  or  spurs  ;  and  this 
latter  should  be  screw-like — not  stabbing  or  digging  at 
the  horse's  side,  which  involves  a  loosening  of  the  hold 
and  accustoms  a  horse  to  wince  away  or  flee  the  spur, 
instead  of  yielding  obedience  to  the  pressure  of  the  calf. 
This  is  what  the  Germans  call  "  wickeln" — that  is  to 
say,  winding  or  rolling  up  a  horse — and,  if  properly 
done,  is  very  efficacious  for  overcoming  restiveness 
generally ;  if  employed  in  the  nick  of  time,  it  will  even 
prevent  rearing. 

On  the  whole,  it  is  evident  that  a  key  to  the  best 
methods  of  mastering  the  horse's  powers  and  utilizing 
them  fairly,  whether  merely  for  handling  young  ones 
or  for  the  prevention  and  cure  of  restiveness,  is  to  be 
found  only  in  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  mechanism 
of  that  animal's  movements.  This  we  have  endeavored 
to  explain  in  Chapter  I.,  Part  I.,  of  this  book;  and 
those  who  will  take  the  pains  to  compare  what  is  said 
there  with  what  they  see  restive  horses  do,  will  be  there- 
by enabled  to  discover  for  themselves  more  than  we  can 
pretend  to  teach  them. 

We  would  also  venture  to  recommend  the  chapter 
on  "  Seats"  to  the  attention  of  rational  riders  and  train- 
ers, but  especially  of  those  who  have  to  deal  with  rest- 
ive horses.  In  that  chapter  we  could  do  little  more 
than  hint  at  general  principles  so  far  as  they  are  appli- 
cable to  various  kinds  of  riding;  here  we  can  lay  down 


232        Restiveness :  its  Pt'eventio?i  and  Cure. 

positive  rules  for  the  seat  and  give  reasons  why  it  should 
be  so  and  not  otherwise. 

We  have  seen  how  a  horse  that  meditates  resistance 
gets  its  legs  under  its  body,  coiling  itself  up,  as  it  were, 
round  one  fixed  point,  the  fourteenth  vertebra.  The 
nearer  the  rider's  seat  is  to  that  point  or  centre  of  mo- 
tion, the  less  will  it  be  liable  to  disturbance  from  the 
violent  efforts  that  ensue.  If  he  sits  farther  back  to- 
ward the  loins,  his  weight  being  there  will  interfere 
with  his  management  of  a  rearer  or  a  backer,  and  ex- 
pose him  directly  to  the  action  of  a  kicker ;  if,  on  the 
contrary,  he  sits  close  to  the  horse's  withers,  he  unduly 
overweights  the  forehand  and  loses  most  of  his  control 
over  the  hind  legs.  Let  us  compare  together,  for  in- 
stance, the  upper  and  lower  figures  of  Plate  V.  on  the 
supposition  of  the  horses  wheeling  sharp  round  sud- 
denly ;  those  of  Plate  VI.  on  the  supposition  of  their 
attempting  to  rear  or  kick ;  and  those  of  Plate  VII.  on 
that  of  their  attempting  to  back  against  the  will  of  their 
respective  riders.  As  to  the  hindermost  figure  of  Plate 
III.,  selected  purposely  to  illustrate  an  exaggeration, 
he  can  do  nothing  with  his  horse. 

As  regards  the  position  of  the  rider's  legs,  the  upper 
figure  of  Plate  V.  and  the  lower  one  of  Plate  VI.  sprawl 
them  out  forward,  and  the  upper  one  of  Plate  VII.  side- 
wise,  with  stiff' knees  away  from  the  horse's  ribs,  so  that 
they  must  alter  their  uohole  seat  when  they  require  to 
give  the  spur,  which  must  be  applied  in  this  position  with 
a  stab,  instead  of  growing,  as  it  w^ere,  out  of  and  being 
the  climax  of  the  pressure  of  the  calf,  the  importance 
of  which  we  have  seen. 

The  position  of  the  rider's  body  from  the  hips  upward 
is  by  no  means  indifferent.  The  getting  up  the  horse's 
head  and  neck  to  the  required  position  demands  a  cer- 
tain amount  of  fixity  of  the  spinal  column,  for  the  work 
to  be  done  by  the  arms  brings  into  play  the  muscles  of 


General  Rules.  233 

the  entire  back.  The  rider  that  comes  into  antagonism 
with  his  horse  is  only,  then,  safe  in  his  seat  when  his 
own  centres  of  gravity  and  motion  fall  in  the  same  per- 
pendicular line  with  the  horse's  centre  of  motion,  other- 
wise he  will  have  to  contend  with  the  centrifugal  mo- 
tion by  dint  of  muscular  exertion  alone. 

Now,  for  a  man  standing  upright,  the  centre  of  grav- 
ity is  in  the  perpendicular  from  the  base  of  the  skull, 
and  the  centre  of  motion  is  at  the  point  where  this 
line  intersects  a  horizontal  line  drawn  through  both  hip- 
joints.  If  the  rider  sits  upright  on  his  "triangle"  (as 
explained  above),  and  in  the  middle  of  his  saddle,  this 
being  in  the  right  place,  his  legs  will,  unless  the  stir- 
rups obstruct,  come  of  themselves  into  such  a  position 
that  his  own  centres  of  gravity  and  motion  will  be 
directly  over  and  very  close  to  the  centre  of  motion  of 
the  horse.  What  Englishmen  are  pleased  to  call  "  a 
stuck-up  seat"  may  be  the  result,  perhaps,  especially 
if  the  rider  be  awkward  ;  but  it  is  not  a  question  of 
taste  or  fashion,  but  of  attaining  certain  definite  ob- 
jects which  remain  otherwise  unattainable  ;  for  no  one 
will  pretend  that  the  position  assumed  by  the  hunting 
man  for  the  purpose  of  making  his  horse  throw  its 
weight  on  the  fore  legs,  with  its  head  and  neck  well 
down  and  extended^  can  also  serve  the  exactly  opposite 
purpose  we  have  in  view  in  the  correction  of  vicious 
animals. 

A  word  with  regard  to  the  whip  and  its  use  will  not 
be  out  of  place.  The  etTect  of  this  instrument  depends 
altogether  on  the  part  of  the  horse's  body  to  which  it 
is  applied  and  the  way  in  which  it  is  used.  One  or  tw^o 
strokes,  given  at  the  proper  moment  and  in  the  right 
place,  will  sometimes  work  wonders,  while  a  severe 
flogging  almost  always  does  mischief.  It  has  been 
pointed  out  that  in  lounging  the  whip  may  be  made  to 
do  the  work  which  the  rider  does  with  his  legs  and 
20* 


234        Restiveness :  its  Prevetition  and  Cure, 

spurs,  and  that,  for  this  purpose,  it  should  always  be 
applied  under  the  horse's  chest,  about  where  the  girth 
lies,  and  never  to  the  buttocks  or  hind  legs,  as  this 
usually  ends  in  kicking.  The  same  rule  applies  equally 
to  the  riding-whip  ;  but  this  may  be  also  used  to  great 
advantage  on  the  horse's  shoulders — as,  for  instance, 
in  cases  where  the  horse  is  preparing  to  rear — the  effect 
being  to  unfix  its  fore  legs  from  the  ground  and  make  it 
put  them  forward,  just  as,  when  applied  under  the 
belly,  it  brings  the  hind  legs  in  the  same  direction. 
Therefore  it  is  absurd,  when  a  horse  defends  itself  by 
gathering  its  legs  under  it,  to  strike  it  under  the  belly, 
whereas  one  or  two  strokes  smartly  applied  to  the 
shoulders  may  probably  have  the  effect  of  getting  the 
fore  legs  stretched  ahead.  The  promptness  and  rapid- 
ity with  which  the  stroke  is  given,  wherever  applied, 
determines,  to  a  great  extent,  its  value  ;  for  if  the  horse 
sees  it  coming,  it  will  flinch  away  if  possible,  just  as  it 
does  from  a  far-fetched  stab  with  the  spur ;  and  it  can 
do  this  much  more  easily  with  the  hind  quarters  than 
with  its  forehand,  which  is  precisely  the  reason  why  a 
flogging — that  is,  repeated  blows  aimed  at  the  same 
place — is  generally  useless,  to  say  the  least,  while  one 
or  two  on  the  shoulders  tell  at  once.  The  manner  of 
holding  the  whip  or  rod  has  much  to  do  with  this.  We 
have  often  been  amused  at  hearing  would-be  sportsmen 
turn  Continental  riders  to  ridicule  for  holding  their 
whips  or  switches  with  the  point  upward,  as  if  they 
only  wanted  to  imitate  a  sabre,  whereas  this  is  in  reality 
the  position  from  which  a  quick,  smart  stroke  on  the 
shoulders  can  be  most  effectually  applied  ;  for  if  the 
point  be  held  downward,  it  must  be  first  brought  up 
and  then  again  down,  so  that  it  probably  comes  too  late. 


CHAPTER   III. 

SPECIAL    FORMS    OF    RESTIVENESS. 

IN  the  preceding  chapter  the  general  method  of  treat- 
ing restiveness  has  been  sketched  in  outline  ;  what 
is  there  put  forward  will  be  found  applicable  to  nearly 
all  cases,  and  also  suffice  for  the  cure  of  most  forms  of 
disobedience.  There  are,  however,  some  others  which, 
in  addition,  require  special  methods  of  treatment,  espe- 
cially when  they  have  become  inveterate ;  and  these 
are — bolting  or  running  away,  bucking  or  plunging, 
rearing  and  kicking. 

Bolting. — The  first  step  to  be  taken  is  to  ascertain 
why  the  horse  bolts.  A  nervous  and  excitable  temper- 
ament is  sometimes  the  cause,  and  the  only  remedy  will 
be  quiet  and  judicious  treatment.  Much  more  fre- 
quently, however,  bolting  is  resorted  to  by  horses  that 
have  some  physical  defect  or  peculiarity  of  conforma- 
tion, as  a  means  of  avoiding  what  gives  them  great 
pain  ;  in  fact,  it  is  frequently  rather  an  effort  of  despair 
than  anything  else,  and  an  evidence  that  something  has 
been  demanded  of  the  animal  that  was  beyond  its 
strength. 

Fig.  7  shows  the  heads  and  necks  of  two  runaway 
horses ;  in  the  one  case  the  animal's  nose  is  poked 
straight  out — in  the  other,  the  chin  comes  back  so  as 

235 


236        Restheness:  its  Pi-evention  and  Cure, 

nearly  to  touch  the  breast ;  In  both  it  escapes  altogether 
the  action  of  the  mouthpiece  ;  but  the  difference  of  po- 
sition assumed  points  to  a  corresponding  difference  of 
conformation.  The  undermost  figure  shows  that  the 
way  in  which  the  head  is  set  on  the  neck,  and  the  build 
of  both,  offer  no  obstacle  in  themselves  ;  and  the  pre- 
sumption is,  therefore,  that  there  is  something  weak  or 
defective  in  the  loins,  hind  quarters  or  legs.  On  the 
other  hand,  in  the  upper  figure  there  is  evidence  that 
such  obstacles  do  exist  in  the  head  and  neck,  the  hind 
quarters  being,  perhaps,  very  powerful.  In  a  word, 
horses  with  short  necks,  narrow  jaws  and  ill  set-on 
heads,  or,  again,  with  long,  unstable  necks,  endeavor 
to  escape  the  pain  occasioned  by  injudicious  attempts 
to  force  these  into  a  certain  shape  bj-  running  away  in 
the  position  of  the  upper  figure  ;  while  those  with  well- 
formed  heads  and  necks  will,  if  their  hind  quarters  be 
weak,  usually  adopt  that  of  the  lower  one — the  getting 
down  of  the  head  alone  bringing  the  weight  well  on  to 
the  fore  legs,  and  consequently  easing  the  weak  part. 
It  sometimes  happens  that  there  are  defects  at  both  ends, 
and  want  of  judgment  or  temper  in  the  rider  will  easily 
drive  such  a  poor,  weak  creature  to  despair ;  for  those 
who  have  had  much  experience  with  young  horses 
must  have  remarked  that  the  powerful  and  well-built 
ones  seldom  take  to  bolting  unless  there  is  something 
wrong  with  their  tempers. 

The  first  impulse  of  the  great  majority  of  riders  whose 
horses  bolt  is,  to  put  a  sharper  bit  into  their  mouths,  or 
at  least  to  shorten  the  curb,  and  perhaps  rig  the  horse 
out  with  some  sort  of  martingal  or  running-reins  that 
gives  them  a  good  hold  of  the  head,  to  secure  which 
more  effectually  they  plant  their  feet  firmly  in  the  stir- 
rups, probably  at  the  same  time  throwing  their  own 
weight  as  far  back  as  possible  toward  the  horse's  loins. 
Energy  is  an  admirable  thing,  but  the   energy  of  stu- 


special  Forms  of  Restlvcncss.  237 

pidity  seldom  avails  much  ;  and  the  above  plan  of  pro- 
ceeding is  nearly  sure  to  make  matters  worse  and  con- 
vert a  terrified  animal  into  a  vicious  one.  For  whether 
the  anguish  the  poor  horse  endeavors  to  escape  from 
has  its  seat  in  the  hind  quarters  or  in  the  head  and 
neck,  severe  bitting  is  sure  to  aggravate  it,  and  a  rude, 
hard  hand  will  do  the  same.  The  best,  in  fact  the  only 
remedy  for  a  bolter  is,  a  very  carefully-fitted  and  well- 
adjusted  bit,  a  perfectly  painless  curb,  a  light  hand,  and 
last,  but  not  least,  a  very  firm,  steady  seat,  somewhat 
forward  with  horses  that  have  weak  hind  quarters. 

It  is  always  a  good  plan  to  put  a  bolter  on  the  lounge, 
not,  indeed,  as  is  generally  done,  with  the  idea  of  letting 
it  exhaust  itself,  for  weakness  is  more  frequently  the  ex- 
citing cause  than  strength,  but  for  the  purpose  of  study- 
ing carefully  its  action,  and  finding  out  by  degrees  in 
what  position  or  trim  it  will  go  steadily  and  quietly  in 
diii'erent  paces.  The  object  will  be,  of  course,  with  a 
horse  that  is  weak  behind,  to  train  it  on  the  forehand,  get- 
ting its  neck  just  suf^ciently  high  up  to  prevent  its  being 
able,  when  the  bit  is  apphed,  to  bend  its  head  round 
toward  the  hand,  so  as  to  escape  altogether  the  lever 
action  of  that  instrument,  but,  on  the  other  hand,  not  so 
high  or  so  far  back  as  to  throw  the  weight  on  the  hind 
legs.  This  will  also  afford  a  key  as  to  the  dimensions 
of  the  lower  bar  of  the  bit. 

With  a  short-necked,  narrow-throated,  heavy-headed, 
perhaps  straight-shouldered  horse,  possessing  good  ser- 
viceable hind  quarters,  the  first  object  will  be  to  get  these 
to  bear  the  weight  gradually  in  the  manner  indicated  in 
a  previous  chapter.  This  will,  of  course,  require  a 
higher  and  gradually  ascending  position  of  the  neck ; 
but  as  the  difficulty  probably  arises  in  the  junction  of 
the  head  with  this  part  of  the  body,  no  attempt  should 
be  made  to  bend  the  nose  downward,  for  that  is  what 
annoys  the  horse.    The  best  gear  will  be  a  bearing-rein 


238        Restiveness :  its  Prevention  and  Cure, 

like  that  used  for  carriage-horses,  but  with  the  rings  as 
close  under  the  horse's  ears  as  possible,  so  as  to  lift  the 
neck  unbent  at  the  part  known  as  the  poll.  In  both 
cases  the  dumb-jockey  is  useful  if  judiciously  employed. 

vSubsequently,  when  the  horse  has  learned  to  bend  its 
hocks,  you  may  bit  it  with  a  light  well-fitted  bit,  wdiich 
will  bend  the  neck  downward  without  altering  the  junc- 
tion with  the  head  ;  in  fact,  what  is  technically  termed 
"a  false  bend"  will  be  attained,  which,  however,  suf- 
fices to  render  the  animal  controllable  so  long  as  the 
rider  preserves  the  mastery  over  its  hind  legs  by  keep- 
ing his  ow^n  close  to  its  body.  In  riding  such  horses,  it 
is  useful,  when  you  find  them  beginning  to  rush,  to 
bring  them  by  gentle  7neans  to  stand  still,  throwing 
your  own  body,  from  the  hips  upward,  somewhat  for- 
ward, and  easing  the  reins  altogether  for  a  moment ; 
whereas  the  common  practice  of  unskillful  riders  is  to 
throw  themselves  back  and  pull  like  grim  death. 

Reining  back  may  also  be  employed,  but  not  with 
horses  that  are  weak  behind,  nor  otherwise  than  in  a 
proper  position,  so  that  the  horse  retires  gently — the  con- 
trary of  backing,  and  never  as  a  punishment  Generally 
it  will  be  preferable  to  stand  still,  and  encourage  the 
horse,  by  feeling  its  mouth,  to  champ  the  mouthpiece, 
when  the  stitihess  of  the  head  and  neck  will  gradually 
relax,  and  it  may  be  put  in  motion  again. 

Here  it  may  be  well  to  say  what  the  rider  should  do 
if  his  horse  runs  away  with  him.  The  general  impres- 
sion seems  to  be  that  the  safest  thing  is  merely  to  en- 
deavor to  keep  the  animal  straight  till  it  gets  tired  of 
galloping,  and  keep  one's  own  seat  as  long  as  possible  ; 
consequently  the  rider  plants  his  feet  as  firmly  as  he  can 
in  the  stirrups,  and  shoves  these  out  toward  the  horse's 
shoulders  in  order  to  get  fixed  points  from  which  he  can 
have  a  dead  pull  on  the  reins,  and  of  course  his  body, 
from  the  hips  upward,  goes  to  the  rear,  right  over  the 


special  Porms  of  Restiveness.  239 

horse's  loins.  Now,  although  this  method  of  proceed 
ing  suggests  itself  very  naturally,  it  is  nevertheless  all 
wrong,  as,  indeed,  must  be  quite  clear  to  those  readers 
who  have  read  the  preceding  pages  with  any  degree  of 
attention  ;  for  whether  the  difficulty  has  its  seat  in  the 
horse's  hind  quarters,  or  in  the  throat  and  neck,  it  is 
sure  to  be  aggravated  in  this  way  ;  besides,  that  one  can 
seldom  reckon  upon  having  room  enough  to  try  this 
experiment  without  encountering  some  obstacle  or  a 
•iharp  corner,  that  brings  horse  and  rider  down  with  a 
smash. 

Let  us  take  the  case  of  a  horse  running  away  in  a  field 
or  open  space,  in  the  first  instance,  as  being  more  easy 
to  deal  with.  Here  the  principal  object  must  be  to  take 
your  horse  off  the  straight  line  and  on  to  a  circle — at 
first,  of  course,  a  wide  one,  but  by  degrees  gradually 
narrowing.  On  a  circle  one  has  room  enough  even  for 
the  tiring  process,  seeing  that  it  never  ends,  but  the 
thing  is  to  know  how  to  get  and  keep  the  horse  on  to  it. 
In  the  first  place,  then,  it  requires  simply  coolness  and 
self-possession  sufficient  to  enable  the  rider  to  sit  well 
down  in  his  saddle,  bringing  his  legs  well  back  and 
keeping  his  body  upright — the  legs  being  required  there 
to  regulate  the  action  of  the  horse's  hind  legs  in  the 
manner  already  described,  whilst  the  upright  position 
of  the  body  afibrds  a  basis  from  which  the  arms  can 
work.  Next,  instead  of  pulling  a  dead  pull  on  both 
reins  alike,  the  rider  must  take  intermittent  pulls  on  the 
one  at  the  side  he  wishes  to  turn  toward,  gradually  in- 
creasing the  strength  of  the  pull,  and  then  as  gradually 
relaxing  to  begin  again  ;  holding  the  other  rein  merely 
"  counter,"  so  that  the  pressure  shall  be  exerted  only 
through  the  mouthpiece,  whatever  the  bit  may  be,  and 
not  through  any  other  portion  of  it,  which  would  be 
useless.  This  intermittent  pull  on  the  rein  must,  how- 
ever, be  always  accompanied  by  a  similar  pressure  of 


240        Kt\tivc7icss :  its  Prevention  arid  Cure, 

the  leg,  or,  if  necessary,  spur,  at  the  same  side^  the 
I'ider's  hand  and  leg  acting  in  perfect  unison  ;  and  this 
will  never  fail  to  turn  the  horse  gradually,  just  as  is  re- 
quired. The  circle  affords,  however,  not  merely  an 
opportunity  for  avoiding  dangerous  obstacles  ;  its  great 
value  is,  that  it  also  enables  the  rider,  by  gradually  ob- 
taining command  over  his  horse,  to  demonstrate  to  the 
latter  the  utter  futility  of  its  attempt  to  get  rid  of  him 
by  running  awa}'-,  and  that,  too,  without  violence  or 
severity.  One  single  attempt  at  bolting  away,  if  taken 
advantage  of  in  this  manner  by  a  judicious  rider,  may 
prove  the  means  of  effectually  subduing  a  troublesome 
animal.  On  the  other  hand,  such  a  rider  will  abstain 
carefully  from  driving  his  horse  to  run  away. 

It  is  more  difficult  to  manage  a  horse  that  runs  away 
on  the  roads  or  in  the  streets  of  a  town,  because  the 
rider  is  more  or  less  compelled  to  follow  straight  lines. 
He  can,  however,  unless  the  road  be  very  narrow  in- 
deed, by  using  the  rein  and  leg  at  each  side  alternately^ 
compel  the  runaway  to  move  on  a  serpentine,  which  is 
nothing  more  nor  less  than  a  series  of  curves  alternating 
to  the  right  and  left,  which  will  also  enable  him  to  clear 
dangerous  corners;  one  of  these,  indeed,  if  well  taken, 
ma}^  possibly  afford  him  an  opportunity  of  gaining  the 
mastery  ;  in  fact,  it  will  be  found  that  most  runaways 
are  stopped  after  turning  a  corner. 

The  special  management  of  the  horse's  head  will,  of 
course,  in  all  cases,  depend  on  whether  it  is  carried  too 
high  or  too  low  :  if  the  former,  the  object  will  be  to  get 
it  down  ;  if  the  latter,  to  get  it  up.  The  presumption 
being  that  the  horse  that  runs  away  with  its  head  up  has 
no  special  defect  in  the  hind  quarters  or  legs,  the  rider 
may  attack  these  more  energetically,  which  requires  his 
own  leg  to  be  in  the  right  place,  and  the  horse's  head  to 
be  brought  round  somewhat  to  the  same  side.  Now, 
although  a  dead  pull  downward  with  both  reins  together 


special  Foi'ms  of  Restivcncss.  241 

will  seldom  bring  the  head  down,  an  intermittent  pull 
on  one  rein  will  bring  it  to  one  side,  after  which  it  will 
come  down,  the  horse  not  being  then  able  to  stiffen  its 
neck  at  both  sides.  With  the  horse  that  carries  its  head 
too  low,  the  presumption  being  to  the  contrary  of  what 
is  stated  above,  the  rider  must  use  his  own  legs  more 
cautiously,  and  whilst  he  endeavors  to  bend  the  horse's 
head  to  one  side  with  one  rein,  he  will  try  to  work  it 
zipzaard  with  the  other.  This,  of  course,  must  be  done 
with  the  bridoon  if  the  horse  be  bitted,  otherwise  with 
the  snaffle-rein  ;  indeed,  it  will  be  found  that  bringing 
the  bit  and  bridoon  alternately  into  action  is  preferable 
to  using  them  simultaneously.  It  should  be  scarcely 
necessary  to  add  that  the  rider's  weight  must  be  always 
thrown  somewhat  into  the  stirrup  at  the  side  you  wish 
to  turn  the  horse  toward,  which  is  difficult  when  the 
stirrups  are  hung  very  far  from  the  seat. 

Bucking-  or  Plu7tgi7ig. — In  bucking,  the  horse  gath- 
ers its  legs  under  its  body,  puts  its  back  up  and  its  head 
down,  and  then  commences  a  series  of  see-saw  move- 
ments, throwing  itself  from  the  hind  to  the  fore  legs  in 
rapid  succession,  either  without  moving  forward  or  in  a 
succession  of  bounds,  which  latter,  however,  is  more 
properly  plunging.  It  occurs  usually  with  young  horses, 
and  is  much  less  common  with  English  ones  than  with 
some  foreign  breeds,  especially  the  Russian  steppe 
horses.  Sometimes  very  tight  girthing,  or  too  heavy  a 
load  on  the  horse's  back,  will  cause  it  to  buck  ;  or  the 
attempt  to  screw  it  up  too  suddenly  into  school  form. 
The  best  method  of  handling  young  horses  that  have 
acquired  this  vice  is  on  tiie  lounge  with  the  dumb-jocke}^ 
the  gi'eat  object  being  to  get  them  to  move  forward,  and 
prevent  the  head  coming  down.  As  the  bucking  or 
plunging  usually  commences  when  the  horse  is  put  into 
a  trot,  it  should  be  kept  as  long  as  possible  at  a  walk  oil 
the  circle,  which  is  best  effected  by  letting  a  man  go 
21  Q 


242        Restiveness :  its  Prevc/itio/i  and  Cure, 

iilongside  its  head,  holding  the  bridle,  if  necessary. 
The  reins  should  not  be  buckled  tight,  as  "  forcing"  a 
bucker  will  often  make  it  throw  itself  down  or  rear  up 
and  fall  back.  For  the  same  reason,  if  it  does  begin  to 
buck,  just  let  it  tire  itself  out,  and  when  it  is  well 
wearied,  one  or  two  smart  blows  of  the  whip  applied 
under  its  chest  by  the  assistant  will  make  it  go  ahead, 
and  thus,  by  degrees,  it  will  give  up  the  habit. 

If  a  horse  takes  to  bucking  or  plunging  under  the 
rider,  his  object  should  be  to  make  it  go  ahead  by  a  few 
smart  strokes  of  the  whip  on  the  shoulders,  even  at  the 
risk  of  its  running  away,  which  he  can  meet  in  the  man- 
ner described  above  ;  and  this  will  even  give  him  an 
opportunity  of  getting  the  head  up,  by  first  bending  the 
neck  to  one  side.  It  is,  of  course,  absurd  to  sit  far  back 
on  a  bucker,  sticking  out  the  legs  in  front ;  a  man  that 
does  so  will  be  shot  oft'  over  the  horse's  ears  at  the  first 
or  second  plunge.  The  seat  must  be  central,  and  the 
rider's  back  as  straight  as  possible,  although  the  natural 
tendency  is  to  round  it ;  the  rider's  weight,  too,  must  be 
thrown  "  into  his  heels,"  right  under  his  seat ;  this  is 
the  only  chance  of  "•  sitting  out  a  bucker." 

Rearing  is  the  most  dreaded  form  of  vice  that  occurs, 
and  therefore  the  dodge  that  cunning  horses  resort  to 
most  frequently,  as  they  at  once  perceive  that  the  rider 
is  afraid  of  it.  Still  it  is  by  no  means  so  difficult  to 
conquer  effectually  as  is  generally  supposed  ;  no  doubt 
a  very  courageous  and  cool-tempered  rider  alone  can 
hope  to  succeed. 

Rearing  would  occur  much  less  frequently  if  it  were 
well  understood  that  it  is  almost  always  the  last  stage 
of  disobedience,  and  veiy  seldom,  if  ever,  the  first.  In 
fact,  its  occurrence  is  evidence  of  injudicious  manage- 
ment of  some  kind,  either  from  untrained  horses  being 
brought  into  positions  for  which  they  are  as  yet  un- 
fitted, or  from  something  being  demanded  of  them  that 


special  Fo7'ms  of  Restivcncss,  243 

was  beyond  their  power ;  or  from  the  rider  not  know- 
ing how  to  recognize  and  subdue  the  very  first  symp- 
toms of  disobedience  ;  or,  finally,  from  his  using  violent 
and  intemperate  methods  of  doing  so. 

We  have  already  pointed  out  how  bad  management 
of  a  backing  or  bucking  horse  may  end  in  rearing;  but 
bringing  a  remount,  or  sometimes  even  an  old  horse, 
into  the  company  of  other  horses,  and  then  trying  to 
get  it  away  against  its  will,  will  often  do  the  same  ;  or 
wanting  to  force  a  horse  over  a  jump  it  does  not  like, 
etc.,  etc.  Now  let  us  see  what  a  horse  does  with  itself 
immediately  before  it  actually  does  rear  up.  The  rider 
is  perhaps  just  congratulating  himself  how  nicely  he  is 
getting  along,  when  all  of  a  sudden  he  feels  as  if  the 
horse  had  collapsed  under  him  ;  his  seat  is  "  nowhere  ;" 
its  head  or  mouth  has  shrunk  away  from  the  feeling  on 
the  mouthpiece,  and  it  has  got  its  legs  under  its  body, 
and  is  come  to  a  dead  stand-still — the  rider  usually, 
unless  his  scat  be  correct,  falling  forward  witli  his 
body,  which  of  course  makes  matters  worse.  Then 
most  riders  will  give  a  great  dig  with  their  heels  or 
spins  just  anywhere  they  can  get  at  the  horse,  or  per- 
haps a  blow  with  their  whip,  whereupon  the  animal 
elevates  itself  on  its  hind  legs  and  becomes  a  rearer 
If  the  spurs,  or  even  the  whip,  had  been  applied  in 
proper  time — that  is  to  say,  before  the  horse  came  to  a 
stand-still — there  would  have  been  some  use  in  them, 
and  it  would  probably  never  have  come  to  rearing  at  all. 
But  if  a  man's  legs  are  spread  far  away  from  the  horse's 
sides,  and  he  thinks  proper  not  only  to  dangle  his  reins, 
but  to  sit  with  his  back  rounded  in  the  so-called  "know- 
ing fashion,"  he  will  then  have  no  '•'feeling  in  his  seat," 
and  is  consequently  quite  ignorant  of  what  his  horse  is 
gohig  to  do^  and  of  course  must  come  too  late  v*'ith  both 
spurs  and  whip,  if  he  happen  to  possess  these  imple- 
ments.    An  immense  majority  of  rearers  learn  this  vice 


244        Rcstivencss :  its  Prevention  and  Cure, 

when  being  ridden  about  in  a  slovenly  manner  by 
young  riders  or  grooms ;  a  man  that  keeps  a  lively  feel 
of  his  horse  with  both  his  hand  and  heels,  and  pays 
attention  to  the  pla}'  of  its  ears  and  to  every  variation 
of  its  pace,  will  seldom,  if  ever,  let  it  come  to  rearing, 
because  the  moment  he  detects  the  least  slackness  he 
will  at  once  apply  the  proper  remedy,  which  will  be  to 
make  the  horse  come  up  to  the  mouthpiece  at  once  ;  but 
then  his  own  legs  must  be  well  closed  up  to  enable  him 
to  do  so. 

If  you  have  ascertained  that  the  trick  of  rearing  was 
first  practiced  somewhat  after  the  manner  described 
above,  you  may  very  reasonably  hope  to  cure  your  horse 
without  much  difficulty.  The  animal  must  be  led^  ready 
saddled  and  bridled,  into  a  riding-school,  or  some  en- 
closed space  of  convenient  dimensions,  in  order  to  avoid 
giving  it  an  opportunity  for  attempting  disobedience  on 
the  way  thither.  The  rider  will  then  mount,  and  begin 
by  riding  quietly  roimd  about  at  a  walk,  not  as  if  he 
were  merely  wanting  to  see  whether  the  horse  would 
rear  or  not,  but  with  the  very  distinct  idea  constantly 
before  his  eyes  of  getting  it  in  the  first  instance  well  up  to 
the  mouthpiece,  so  as  to  have  a  firm  leaning,  recollect- 
ing always  that  this  will  depend  quite  as  much  on  his 
own  legs  as  on  those  of  the  horse  ;  after  which  he  will 
proceed  to  correct  the  carriage  or  "  form  "  of  the  animal 
in  the  way  described  in  the  introductory  chapter  to  Part 
III.,  halting  occasionally,  bending  the  neck  and  head ; 
and,  finally,  when  he  finds  that  he  has  got  a  hold  of  his 
horse  between  his  own  legs  and  the  reins — that  is  to  sa}', 
feels  that  he  is  the  regulator  of  the  steed's  movements  at 
a  walk — he  may  urge  it  gradually  into  whatever  trot  it 
pleases  to  go  itself,  and  subsequently  bring  it  into  the 
form  he  himself  pleases ;  in  fact,  he  will  re-train  it  till 
it  is  in  perfect  obedience,  when  there  will  be  no  more 
danger  of  its  rearing — under  a  good  rider  at  least. 


special  Forms  of  Restiveness.  345 

Should  the  horse,  during  this  period  of  training,  **  try 
on"  his  old  tricks,  the  rider  must  be  prepared  for  it, 
watching  its  movements  attentively,  and  especially  all 
slackening  or  cringing  in  its  paces,  which  should  be 
promptly  attacked,  though  not  roughly.  Acting  merely 
on  the  defensive  is  quite  out  of  place  in  handling  vicious 
horses ;  one  must  meet  them  boldly.  One  or  two 
promptly  administered  cuts  of  the  whip  over  the  shoul- 
ders will  frequently  nip  any  renewed  attempt  at  rearing 
in  the  bud.  With  all  restive  horses,  but  more  especially 
with  rearers,  it  is  essential  that  the  regular  seat  should 
not  be  in  the  least  disturbed  by  the  necessity  for  using 
either  whip  or  spur.  A  seat  that  may  do  admirably 
well  for  riding  a  willing  horse  over  the  stiflest  countiy 
in  England  may  be  perfectly  useless  for  the  sort  of  work 
described  here. 

Horses  that  have  become  confirmed  rearers,  and  fre- 
quently thrown  themselves  back  with  the  rider,  will  re- 
quire great  caution,  and  must  be  handled  in  a  somewhat 
more  methodical  manner,  though  still  on  the  same  prin- 
ciple. We  have  shown  what  the  horse  does  when  it  is 
preparing  to  rear ;  let  us  now  for  a  moment  look  at  it  in 
the  act  of  rearing.  After  slinking  away  from  the  rider's 
hand  and  seat,  so  that  he  loses  all  hold  of  it,  the  animal 
suddenly  stiflens  its  hocks,  throwing  its  whole  weight 
on  them,  and  at  the  same  moment  stiflens  also  its  neck, 
and  especially  the  throat,  somewhat  in  the  position 
shown  by  the  upper  horse  in  fig.  7?  so  that  it  becomes 
quite  impossible  to  get  a  downward  pull  at  it,  and  thus 
defies  the  rider  most  completely.  It  is  always  the  same 
story — stiffened  hocks  and  a  stifl'  neck.*  Tlie  safest  way 
of  managing  confirmed  rearers  is  on  the  lounge,  without 

*  In  the  English  method  of  handh'ng  horses  little  attention  is  paid 
to  the  horse's  hocks  or  neck  ;  while,  on  the  contrary,  the  pasterns  are 
severely  worked,  which  is  precisely  the  reason  why  school  methods 
must  be  employed  for  rearers. 
21  * 


3i6        Restlveness :  its  Prevention  and  Cure, 

the  dumb-jocke}^,  which  would  be  very  likely  to  injure 
the  horse  severely  in  case  of  its  throwing  itself  back. 
Of  course  the  reader  will  at  once  perceive  that  the  gen- 
eral plan  of  treatment  will  consist  in  getting  the  animal 
to  bend  its  hocks  and  neck  in  the  manner  already  de- 
scribed above  ;  and  we  may,  therefore,  confine  our  ob- 
servations here  to  what  should  be  done  when  it  actually 
does  rear,  which  will  be  usually  at  the  moment  one 
attempts  to  put  it  into  a  trot  on  the  circle  ;  for  which 
reason  bending  lessons,  when  halted  or  at  a  walk,  must 
be  persevered  in  at  first.  Supposing,  now,  the  horse 
to  be  on  the  lounge,  and  suddenly  to  stop  and  rear  up, 
the  trainer,  wlio  must  have  an  assistant  that  knows  well 
how  to  use  the  whip,  should  shorten  the  line  in  coils  in 
his  left  hand,  holding  it  firmly  in  the  right,  just  long 
enough  to  keep  him  clear  of  the  horse's  fore  legs  should 
it  make  a  plunge  forward,  and  placing  himself  exactly 
opposite  to  the  animal's  head,  so  that,  by  stepping  back 
a  pace  or  two,  he  is  sure  to  retain  a  good  "  feeling  "  on 
the  line  when  its  fore  legs  again  touch  the  ground,  the 
assistant  with  the  whip  stepping  meanwhile  smartly  up 
behind  the  animal.  The  trainer  should,  in  this  position, 
merely  keep  a  feeling  on  the  line,  as  one  would  with  a 
heavy  salmon,  never  attempting  to  pull  the  horse's  head 
forcibly  downward  or  to  jerk  at  the  lounge,  as  the  steady 
pull  would  only  serve  to  make  it  lean  on  your  hand  and 
persist  so  much  the  longer  in  rearing,  whilst  a  sudden 
drag  is  very  likely  to  knock  it  over — a  thing  to  be  avoided 
if  possible.  One  must  wait  patiently,  watching  atten- 
tively the  horse's  movements,  and  taking  care  always  to 
preserve  his  own  position,  so  as  to  be  ready  when  the 
moment  for  action  arrives.  But  the  assistant  with  the 
whip  should  meanwhile  deliver  a  few  heavy,  deliberately- 
aimed  blows  on  the  animal's  buttocks  —  not  striking 
wildly,  but  taking  care  to  hit  one  and  the  same  spot  re- 
peatedly, and  watching  anxiously  for  the  moment  when 


special  Forms  of  Restiveness,  347 

the  rearer  shows  signs  of  getting  tired  of  standing  on  its 
hind  legs,  and  is  about  to  go  down.  This  is  the  mo- 
ment at  which  the  last  and  most  effective  cut  of  the  whip 
should  be  inflicted  ;  and  this,  too,  is  the  moment  for  the 
trainer  to  give  a  short  sharp  drag  on  the  lounge  down- 
ward ;  and  if  the  whip  has  been  applied  at  the  right 
moment,  the  horse  will  have  been  compelled  to  obey 
the  lounge,  the  trainer's  master^'  will  have  been  asserted, 
and  if  the  horse  ever  again  attempts  to  rear  during 
lounging,  a  very  gentle  pull  of  the  cavesson  on  its  nose 
reminds  it  of  its  previous  defeat,  and  will  probably  en- 
sure obedience  ;  if  not,  the  lesson  must  be  repeated  in 
the  same  manner. 

Should  one  or  the  other  hind  leg  appear  to  be  giving 
way,  as  often  happens,  while  the  horse  stands  erect,  the 
trainer  should  give  a  good  smart  pull  on  the  lounge  to 
the  same  side,  which  will  throw  the  animal  flat  on  its 
side,  instead  of  allowing  it  to  fall  on  its  back,  which  is 
always  attended  with  danger.  Sometimes,  no  doubt,  a 
fall  of  the  latter  kind  will  cure  the  animal  for  ever ;  but 
it  is  better,  for  many  reasons,  that  the  horse,  having  lost 
the  power  of  maintaining  itself  and  offering  further 
opposition  to  the  trainer's  will,  should  be  compelled  to 
take  the  inevitable  fall  in  the  direction  he  prescribes. 

Most  horses,  when  they  do  at  length  consent  to  bring 
their  fore  legs  to  the  ground,  especially  if  the  whip  has 
been  vigorously  applied  at  the  proper  moment,  will  make 
a  sudden  plunge  forward,  w  hich  is  so  much  the  better ; 
the  trainer  must  then  step  smartly  to  one  side — the  ofl' 
one,  if  possible — and  catch  the  horse  cannily  in  mid-air 
with  the  lounge,  handling  it  quickly  and  neatly,  and 
taking  especial  care  not  to  stumble  into  the  slack  coils 
in  his  left  hand.  This  manoeuvre,  if  well  carried  out, 
will  aflbrd  complete  mastery,  and  render  the  animal  per- 
fectly obedient  once  for  all.  All  that  remains  to  be  done 
is  to  get  the  horse  to  stand  still,  the  trainer  shortening 


248        Restlvcncss  :  its  Pi'eve?itlo7i  and  Cure. 

the  lounge  by  degrees,  and  getting  in  front  of  the  head, 
and  the  assistant  placing  himself  behind  the  trainer's 
back,  and  putting  his  whip  out  of  sight ;  then  ''  make 
much"  of  the  animal,  give  it  a  handful  of  oats  or  a  bit 
of  something  nice,  loosen  the  reins  and  girths  and  send 
it  back  to  the  stable.  Horses  have  excellent  memories, 
and  sufficient  intelligence  to  understand  that  they  have 
been  rew^arded  for  obedience,  and  that  their  attempt  at 
having  their  ov^^n  way  has  failed.  This  is  a  main  point 
to  keep  steadfastly  in  view  with  all  restive  animals: 
avoid  getting  defeated  yourself,  and  be  kind  and  gener- 
ous to  the  vanquished.  Of  course  this  would  only  be  a 
first  step  in  the  cure  ;  to  make  it  perfect  the  horse  must 
be  re-trained  or  handled  from  beginning  to  end  in  the 
way  already  pointed  out. 

As  it  sometimes  happens  that  a  man  is  taken  com- 
pletely by  surprise,  a  horse  rearing  that  has  never  shown 
any  previous  symptoms  of  restiveness,  it  will  be  well  to 
point  out  what  should  be  done  in  such  a  case.  It  requires 
presence  of  mind  and  great  coolness,  also  a  really  firm 
seat,  wholly  independent  of  the  stirrups  on  the  one  hand 
and  the  reins  on  the  other,  to  enable  one  to  deal  with  a 
rearer;  but  the  thing  can  be  done,  and  without  much 
danger,  except  on  pa\  ement  or  a  slippery  surface,  where 
it  is  better  not  to  attempt  a  contest.  When  the  horse 
stops  with  the  intention  of  rearing,  it  first  withdraws  its 
mouth  from  the  action  of  the  reins  by  getting  its  head 
more  or  less  into  the  position  shown  by  the  low^er  head, 
fig.  7  ;  but  when  it  begins  to  elevate  itself  on  its  hind 
legs,  it  assumes  the  exactly  opposite  position,  shown  by 
the  upper  head  of  the  same  figure,  which,  of  course, 
equally  enables  it  to  defy  the  action  of  the  mouthpiece. 
The  advice  usually  given  is  to  slacken  the  reins  alto- 
gether ;  but  this  is  simply  "  plaNing  into  the  horse's 
hand,"  because  its  object  is  precisely  to  defeat  the  rider's 
hand,  first  by  slinking  awa}-  from   it,  and  finally  by  re- 


special  Forms  of  Restiveness,  249 

sisting  it  openly.  Evidently  this  advice  is  dictated  by 
the  apprehension  that  the  rearing  up  of  the  horse,  de- 
priving the  rider  of  the  usual  support  of  the  knees  and 
stirrups,  will  lead  him  to  seek  this  in  the  reins,  and  so 
pull  the  horse  over  backward  ;  and  no  doubt  this  will 
prove  correct  for  the  great  majority  of  riders.*  But  if 
a  man  sits  to  his  saddle  by  his  thighs,  and  has  his  own 
body  in  balance,  there  need  be  no  such  apprehension  ; 
and  if  he  then  has  only  presence  of  mind  sufficient  to 
preserve  a  feeling  with  the  reins  during  the  time  the 
horse's  head  is  passing  from  the  position  shown  by  the 
lower  to  that  shown  by  the  upper  head,  fig.  7,  there 
will  be  a  moment  when  it  will  be  in  the  intermediate 
position  (see  fig.  6,  middle  head),  and  the  animal's  back- 
bone will  then  also  have  assumed  an  angle,  not  greater 
than  45  degrees,  with  the  horizon  ;  the  hocks,  therefore, 
will  be  still  bent  somewhat  (refer  to  Plate  I.  and  fig.  4 
to  realize  the  mechanism  of  the  hind  leg).  This  is  the 
moment  to  screw  both  spurs  as  forcibly  as  possible  into 
the  horse's  sides^  the  effect  of  which  is,  as  we  know,  to 
bend  the  hocks,  if  the  hand  be  held  counter ;  therefore 
the  animal  will,  in  nine  cases  out  often,  make  a  plunge 
forward,  and  having  preserved  throughout  a  proper  de- 
gree of  feeling  with  the  reins,  the  rider  will  be  enabled 
to  catch  the  horse  in  the  air  and  bring  it  to  the  ground, 
so  that  the  hind  legs  should  touch  this,  if  possible,  a  mo- 
ment sooner  than  the  fore  ones,  or  at  least  so  that  they 
should  get  the  greater  part  of  the  shock.  This  is  in 
itself  a  very  severe  correction,  and  one  \}i\2^\.  good  school- 
riders  apply  with  great  effect  with  other  forms  of  insub- 
ordination, not  hesitating  even  to  provoke  an  attempt  at 
rearing  in  order  to  have  the  opportunity  ;  if  it  be  well 
done  it  may  perhaps  suffice  once  for  all. 

*  The  very  fact  of  the  horse  ever  getting  the  length  of  rearing  is 
presumptive  evidence  of  the  rider's  legs  being  in  the  wrong  place  at 
the  time. 


*5o        Restiveness :  its  Prevention  and  Cure. 

It  may,  however,  happen  tliat  the  horse  has  contrived 
to  stick  out  its  head  (top  one,  fig.  7)  and  stiffen  its  hocks 
completely,  so  as  to  enable  it  to  stand  upright  before 
the  rider  has  made  up  his  mind  what  to  do.  Well,  even 
then  the  game  is  not  lost,  if  only  the  rider  has  a  seat 
and  patience  to  wait,  just  as  in  the  lounging  process,  till 
he  feels  his  steed  coming  down  out  of  the  clouds,  which 
it  is  sure  to  do  some  time  or  another,  when,  if  his  hands 
and  legs  are  right,  he  will  be  ready  to  act  as  described 
in  the  preceding  paragraph  on  the  horse  getting  down 
to  45  degrees.  In  case  the  rider  finds  the  horse  actually 
fiilling,  either  directly  backward  or  to  one  side,  let  him 
throw  himself  oft' with  a  vigorous  push  of  both  hands,  so 
as  to  get  clear.  This  we  have  done  ourselves  more  than 
once  ;  but  the  trainer  misses  an  opportunity  by  being 
driven  to  this  extremity. 

Kicki7tg. — There  is  a  difference  between  kicking  and 
kicking.  One  horse  will  kick  in  harness,  and  not  under 
a  rider  ;  another  will  do  just  the  reverse.  The  former  is 
probably  extremely  ticklish  and  sensitive  to  anything 
coming  in  contact  with  its  hind  quarters  ;  mares  are  fre- 
quently so,  especially  in  spring.  The  latter  will  prob- 
ably have  some  weakness  in  the  loins  or  hind  quarters 
that  is  rendered  painful  when  weight  is  put  on  its  back. 
When  this  vice  proceeds  from  natural  causes  of  this  de- 
scription, there  is  no  help  for  it  but  to  employ  the  horse 
in  whichever  way  it  is  content  to  do  its  work  quietly. 
Again,  one  horse  will  kick  at  the  spurs,  another  at  the 
whip  ;  of  course  the  exciting  cause,  whatever  it  be,  must 
be  avoided. 

But  something  can  be  done  with  young  horses  that 
simply  take  to  kicking  during  the  handling ;  very  fre- 
quently the  trainer  has  made  some  mistake,  or  been  in 
too  great  a  hurry,  or  put  the  saddle  too  far  back,  or 
girthed  the  animal  too  suddenly  or  too  tightly.    All  this 


special  For7us  of  Restiveness*  251 

should  be,  in  the  first  place,  well  inquired  into  and 
ascertained,  and  the  vice  will  disappear  with  its  exciting 
cause.  There  are,  however,  some  young  ones  that  take 
to  kicking  simply  because  they  don't  choose  to  go. 
These  should  be  put  on  the  lounge  with  the  dumb- 
jockey,  which  will  prevent  their  getting  their  heads 
doivn^  what  a  kicking  horse  always  attempts  to  do.  If 
the  horse  stops  on  the  circle  and  begins  to  kick,  the 
trainer  should  proceed  precisely  in  the  same  manner  as 
with  the  rearer — that  is,  after  shortening  the  lounge, 
and  placing  himself  in  front  of  the  animal,  simply  wait 
patiently.  Meanwhile  the  assistant  with  the  whip  must 
place  himself  behind  the  kicker,  and  holding  a  suffi- 
ciently long  whip  in  readiness,  wait  till  the  horse  has 
extended  its  hind  legs  to  their  utmost  stretch.  This  is 
the  momeitt  to  apply  a  good  stroke  of  the  lash  just  under 
the  animal's  belly,  taking  care  never  to  hit  the  hind  legs, 
nor  to  strike  at  all  except  at  the  moment  these  are  fully 
extended.  The  effect  is  perfectly  astounding,  and  a  few 
well-delivered  strokes  will  generally  make  the  kicker 
only  too  anxious  to  get  away  from  the  whip,  and  go 
ahead  quietly.  Some  horses  w^ill,  however,  when  baf- 
fled in  this  way,  cease  kicking,  but  still  refuse  to  move 
forward.  The  trainer  must  then  proceed  to  "  unfix  their 
feet"  in  the  manner  described  in  Chapter  II.,  Part  III., 
or  make  them  rein  back  gradually.  Other  horses  will, 
perhaps,  take  to  "running"  backward.  All  one  can 
then  do  is  to  follow  them  quietly,  merely  keeping  their 
heads  straight,  so  tliat  they  should  not  run  up  against  a 
wall  or  the  like,  but  always  taking  care  not  to  press  so 
heavily  on  the  lounge  as  to  throw  the  animal's  weight 
071  the  fore  legs,  as  this,  of  course,  will  be  a  good  oppor- 
tunity to  renew  the  kicking.  When  the  horse  gets  tired 
of  backing,  it  will  stop  of  its  own  accord.  This  moment 
must  be  attentively  watched  for  by  the  assistant  with 
the  whip,  who  should  then  "  pitch  in  "  a  dexterous  stroke 


252        Restlvetiess :  its  Prevention  and  Cure, 

under  the  belly,  and  this  will  generally  suffice  to  get  the 
animal  to  go  forward. 

In  conclusion,  it  (^nnot  be  too  strongly  impressed  on 
the  minds  of  those  who  undertake  to  handle  restive 
horses  that  very  little  can  be  done  by  main  force,  no- 
thing at  all  by  cruel  or  even  severe  treatment,  whereas 
everything  may  be  fairly  hoped  from  patience,  judg- 
ment and  kindness.  It  is  especially  in  this  department 
of  riding  that  the  truth  of  our  Horatian  motto,  "  Vis 
consili  expers  mole  ruit  sua,"  verifies  itself.  One  can 
almost  fancy  that  the  passage  was  suggested  to  the  Latin 
poet  by  having  seen  some  Roman  rough-rider  dragging 
a  rearing  horse  over  on  himself. 


^^ 


INDEX. 


Amgui  of  rein  with  bit,  166. 
Apperley,  Mr.,  on  seat,  86,  87. 

Bars  of  bit,  162. 

Bars  of  mouth,  133,  134. 

Basis  of  seat,  triangular,  78. 

Baucher.  19,  115. 

Bearing,  line  of,  164. 

Bit,  place  of,  in  mouth,  i6g. 

Bit,  trial,  193. 

Bitting,  importance  to  cavalry,  120. 

Blanket,  69. 

Blinds  to  bridles,  121. 

Bobbing  up  and  down,  88. 

Bolting,  235. 

Bone,  Monboddo,  78. 

Bones,  sitting,  78. 

Breastplate,  71. 

Bridoon,  188. 

Broken  knees,  18,  93. 

Bucking,  241. 

Cadence  of  horses'  paces,  43-46, 
Campaign  school,  95. 
Canter,  hoof-tracks  in,  41. 
Carriage  of  cavalry  horses,  141,  142. 
Causes  of  restiveness,  227. 
Cavalry  bitting,  120. 
Cavalry-horse's  load,  99,  loo. 
Cavalry  pack,  105. 
Cavalry  riding,  natural,  138. 
Centre  of  gravity,  33. 
22 


Centre  of  motion,  32,  5* 
Channel,  tongue,  137. 
Chin-groove,  132. 
Corns,  93. 
Cruppers,  70. 
Curb-hooks,  172. 
Curb,  length  of,  171. 
Curb,  place  of,  171. 

Direction  of  pull  on  reins,  124. 
Dumb-jockey,  220. 
Dumpy  bit,  181. 

English  method  of  handling,  205. 
Equilibrium  at  rest,  37. 
Equilibrium  in  motion,  52. 

Falling  through,  163,  164. 
Feet  as  bearers,  37. 
Feet  as  propellers,  37. 
Feltplate,  69. 
Flap,  saddle,  68. 
French  cavalry,  19 

Gallop,  hoof-tracks  in,  41. 
Girth,  place  of,  in  saddle,  61,  62, 
Girth,  place  of,  on  horse,  63. 
Groove,  chin,  132. 

Halter,  training,  151. 
Handling,  English  method,  205. 
Handling,  rational,  116. 

253 


254 


Index, 


Handling,  school  method,  210. 

Hard  mouth,  112,  113. 

Head  and  neck,  Bancher's  position  of, 

"5- 
Head  and  neck,  overhanging,  49. 
Head,  Sir  F.,  on  seat,  84,  85. 
Hoof-tracks,  41. 
Hook-curb,  172. 
Horse-breaking,  116. 
Hungarian  saddle,  58,  102,  103. 
Hunting  seat,  83. 

Jaw,  lower,  131. 
Jockey,  dumb,  220. 
Jockey's  saddle  and  seat,  81. 
Jointed  mouthpieces,  178. 

Kicking,  250. 

Length  of  bars  of  bit,  162. 
Length  of  curb,  171. 
Length  of  stirrup,  66,  67. 
Lever  action  in  saddles,  59. 
Levers,  orders  of,  158. 
Line  of  bearing,  163. 
Load  of  cavalry  horse,  99,  100. 
Load  of  sumpter-horse,  97. 
Lounging,  212. 
Lower  jaw,  131. 

Marochetti's  statuettes,  107. 
Military  seat,  94-108. 
Monboddo  bone,  78. 
Mouth-gauge,  igi. 
Mouthpiece,  173-182, 
Mouth,  width  of,  135, 

Narrow  throat,  129. 

Neck    and    head,    Baucher's    position, 

"5. 
Neck  and  head,  overhanging,  49. 
Noseband,  15a 

Orders  of  levers,  158, 

Pack,  cavalry,  105. 

Pelham,  179. 

Place  of  the  bit  in  horse's  mouth,  169. 


Place  of  the  curb,  171. 
Place  of  the  girth,  61-63. 
Place  of  the  saddle,  59-61. 
Plate,  felt,  69. 
Plunging,  241. 

Port  of  mouthpiece,  173,  174, 
Position  of  stirrup,  64-66. 
Pull  on  the  reins,  124- 

Rach-horse  weights,  100,  loi. 
Rearing,  242. 
Reins,  running,  154. 
Restiveness,  causes  of,  222. 
Riding,  natural  cavalry,  138. 
Road-riding,  87. 

Saddle-flaps,  68. 

Saddle,  Hungarian,  58,  102,  103. 

Saddle,  lever  action  in,  59. 

Saddle,  place  of,  59-61. 

School  method  of  handling,  210. 

Seat,  good  and  bad,  Mr.  Apperley  on,  86 

87. 
Seat,  hunting,  83. 
Seat,  jockey's,  81. 
Seat,  military,  94-108. 
Seat,  "  tongs  across  a  wall,"  87,  96. 
Seat,  wabh-ball,  84. 
Short  shoeing,  93. 
Sitting-bones,  78. 
Skeleton  of  horse,  23. 
Snaffle,  147. 
Snaffle,  twisted,  149. 
Soft  and  hard  mouth,  111-113. 
Standing  stifi^  163. 
Statuettes,  Marochetti's,  107. 
Steppers,  short  and  long,  44 
Stirrup,  length  of,  66,  67. 
Stirrup,  position  of,  64-66. 
Strangles,  130. 
Sumpter-horse  load,  97. 
Surcingle,  62,  63. 
Surface  of  saddle,  68. 

Throat,  narrow,  1*9, 
"Tongs  across  a  wall,"  87,  96, 
Tongue-cliannel,  137. 
Trager,  91. 


Training-halter,  151. 
Trial-bit,  193. 

Triangular  basis  of  seat,  78. 
Trim  of  a  boat,  48. 
Trim  of  a  loaded  cart,  47. 
Trot,  li  oof-marcs  in,  41. 
Trotting,  90. 
Twisted  snaffle,  149. 


Index. 

Unfixing  horse,  228. 


Wash-ball  seat,  84. 
Weight  for  race-horses,  100,  101. 
Whip,  use  of,  213-215. 
Width  of  mouth,  135. 
Winding  up  a  horse,  231. 


'd:) 


THE    END. 


Webster  Family  Library  of  Veterinary  Medicto 

Cummings  School  of  Veterinary  Medicine  at 

Tufts  University 

200  Westboro  Road 

Morm  Grafton,  MA  01S36 


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